Forest certification and democracy

详细信息    查看全文

• 作者：Errol Meidinger (1) (2)
  
• 关键词：Certification ; Corporate social responsibility ; Deliberative democracy ; Democratic experimentalism ; Democracy ; Forest certification ; Governance ; International trade ; New governance ; Participation ; Regulation ; Regulatory competition ; Sustainable forestry ; Transnational governance
• 刊名：European Journal of Forest Research
• 出版年：2011
• 出版时间：May 2011
• 年：2011
• 卷：130
• 期：3
• 页码：407-419
• 全文大小：240KB
• 参考文献：1. Abbott K, Snidal D (2009a) Strengthening international regulation through transnational new governance: overcoming the orchestration deficit. Vanderbilt J Trans Law 42:1鈥?0
  2. Abbott K, Snidal D (2009b) The governance triangle: regulatory standards institutions and the shadow of the state. In: Mattli W, Woods N (eds) The politics of global regulation. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp 44鈥?8
  3. Aman A (2004) The democracy deficit: taming globalization through law reform. NYU, New York
  4. Appleton A (2002) Environmental labelling schemes revisited: WTO law and developing country implications. In: Sampson G, Chambers W (eds) Trade, environment and the millennium. United Nations University Press, New York, pp 235鈥?66
  5. Bartley T (2003) Certifying forests and factories: states, social movements, and the rise of private regulation in the apparel and forest products fields. Pol Socy 31:433鈥?64 CrossRef
  6. Bartley T (2007) How foundations shape social movements: the construction of an organizational field and the rise of forest certification. Soc Probl 54:229鈥?55 CrossRef
  7. Bartley T, Smith S (2010) Communities of practice as cause and consequence of transnational governance: the evolution of social and environmental certification. In: Djelic M, Quack S (eds) Transnational communities: shaping global economic governance. Cambridge, London, pp 347鈥?74 CrossRef
  8. Bennett M (2001) FSC not 鈥渢op choice,鈥?wrong choice for Lowes, Environment and Climate News, September 1 http://www.heartland.org/publications/environment%20climate/article/956/FSC_not_top_choice_wrong_choice_for_Lowes.html Accessed 10 March 2009
  9. Bernstein S, Cashore B (2007) Can non-state global governance be legitimate? an analytical framework. Reg Gov 1:347鈥?71
  10. Black J (2008) Constructing and contesting legitimacy and accountability in polycentric regulatory regimes. Reg Gov 2:137鈥?64
  11. Brady (2007) Tighter organic standards may squeeze out small farmers. Accessed online 17 Nov 2007 at http://twohandsworldshop.com/blog/2007/04/04/tighter-organic-standards-may-sqeeze-out-small-farmers/
  12. Cashore B, Auld G, Newsom D (2003) The United States race to certify sustainable forestry: non-state environmental governance and the competition for policy-making authority. Bus Pol 5:219鈥?59 CrossRef
  13. Cashore B, Auld G, Newsom D (2004) Governing through markets: forest certification and the emergence of non-state authority. Yale, New Haven, CT
  14. Cheit R (1990) Setting safety standards: regulation in the public and private sectors. University of California Press, Berkeley
  15. Cohen J, Sabel C (1997) Directly-deliberative polyarchy. Eur Law J 3:313鈥?42 CrossRef
  16. Coleman W, Reed A (2007) Legalisation, transnationalism and the global organic movement. In: Br眉tsch C, Lehmkuhl D (eds) Law and legalization in transnational relations. Routledge, London, New York, pp 101鈥?20
  17. Conroy M (2007) Branded. New Society, Gabriola Island, BC
  18. Counsell S, Loraas K (2002) Trading in credibility: the myth and reality of the forest stewardship council. Rainforest Foundation UK, London
  19. Courville S (2003) Social accountability audits: challenging or defending democratic governance? Law Poly 25:269鈥?97 CrossRef
  20. Cummins A (2004) The marine stewardship council: a multi-stakeholder approach to sustainable fishing. Corp Soc Responsib Environ Manage 11:85鈥?4 CrossRef
  21. Dahl R (1989) Democracy and its critics. Yale, New Haven
  22. Dashwood H (2007) Canadian mining companies and corporate social responsibility: weighing the impact of global norms. Can J Pol Sci 40:129鈥?56
  23. DiMaggio J, Powell W (1983) The iron cage revisited: institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. Am Sociol R 48(2):147鈥?60 CrossRef
  24. Dingwerth K, Pattberg P (2009) World politics and organizational fields: the case of transnational sustainability governance. Eur J Int Rel 15(4):707鈥?43 CrossRef
  25. Dorf M, Sabel C (1998) A constitution of democratic experimentalism. Colum Law R 98:267鈥?73 CrossRef
  26. Elliott C (2000) Forest certification: a policy network perspective. Ctr Intl Forestry Rsrch, Bogor, Indonesia
  27. Florini A (ed) (2000) The third force: the rise of transnational civil society. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington, DC
  28. FSC (2009) Forest Stewardship council A.C. By-Laws, bylaws 12 and 13, available online at http://www.fsc.org/fileadmin/web-data/public/document_center/institutional_documents/1_1_FSC_By-Laws_2009.pdf (visited March 10, 2009)
  29. Fung A (2003) Deliberative democracy and international labor standards. Governance 16:51鈥?1 CrossRef
  30. Fung A, O鈥橰ourke D, Sabel C (2001) Can we put an end to sweatshops? A new democracy forum on raising global labor standards. Beacon, Boston
  31. GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) Annex 1A, Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (1994), 搂 2.4, 33 ILM 154
  32. Gulbrandsen L (2005) Mark of sustainability? Challenges for fishery and forestry eco-labeling. Environ 47:8鈥?3
  33. Gunningham N, Kagan R, Thornton D (2004) Social license and environmental protection: why businesses go beyond compliance. Law Soc Inq 29:307鈥?41 CrossRef
  34. Habermas J (1996) Between facts and norms: contributions to a discourse theory of law and democracy. MIT, Cambridge, MA
  35. Haufler V (2009) The Kimberly process, club goods, and public enforcement of a private regime. In: Potoski M, Prakash A (eds) Voluntary programs: a club theory perspective. MIT, Boston, pp 89鈥?06
  36. Heydebrand W (2003) Process rationality as legal governance: a comparative perspective. Intl Sociol 18:325鈥?49 CrossRef
  37. Hirschman A (1970) Exit, voice, and loyalty: responses to decline in firms, organizations, and states. Harvard, Cambridge, MA
  38. Honey M (2002) Ecotourism and certification: setting standards in practice. Island Press, Washington, DC
  39. IFOAM (n.d.) International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, Uniting the organic world. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-VRBWLpYCPY Accessed 15 January 2010
  40. ISEAL Alliance (2006) International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labelling Alliance, Code of Good Practice, 露 7.1, available online at http://www.isealalliance.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Page.ViewPage&PageID=1046 Accessed 27 March 2009
  41. ISEAL Alliance (2008) Governmental use of voluntary standards: innovation in sustainability governance http://earthmind.net/earthmind/updates/2008/2008-10-iseal-guvs-overview.pdf Accessed 15 Jan 2010
  42. Jaffee D (2007) Brewing justice: fair trade coffee, sustainability, and survival. University of California, California, Berkeley
  43. Keck M, Sikkink K (1998) Activists beyond borders: advocacy networks in international politics. Cornell, Ithaca, NY
  44. Krislov S (1997) How nations choose product standards and standards change nations. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh
  45. Levi M, Linton A (2003) Fair trade: a cup at a time? Pol Socy 31:407鈥?32 CrossRef
  46. Macdonald T, Macdonald K (2006) Non-electoral accountability in global politics: strengthening democratic control within the global garment industry. Eur J Intl Law 17:89鈥?19 CrossRef
  47. M盲ntyranta H (2002) Forest certification: an ideal that became an absolute. Meets盲lehti Kustannus, Helsinki
  48. May P (2006) Forest certification in Brazil. In: Cashore B, Gale F, Meidinger E, Newsom D (eds) Confronting sustainability: forest certification in developing and transitioning countries. Yale, New Haven, pp 337鈥?62
  49. McLennan J, Rumsey P (2003) Is LEED the holy grail of sustainable design? Environ Des Constr 6:34鈥?5
  50. Meidinger E (1999) Human rights, 鈥減rivate鈥?environmental regulation, and community. Buff Environ Law J 7:123鈥?38
  51. Meidinger E (2000) Private environmental certification systems and us environmental law: closer than you may think. Environ Law Rep 31:10161鈥?0179
  52. Meidinger E (2003) Forest certification as a global civil society regulatory institution. In: Meidinger E, Elliott C, Oesten G (eds) Social and political dimensions of forest certification. Forstbuch, Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany
  53. Meidinger E (2006) The administrative law of global private-public regulation: the case of forestry. Eur J Intl Law 17:47鈥?7 CrossRef
  54. Meidinger E (2007) Beyond Westphalia: competitive legalization in emerging transnational regulatory systems. In: Br眉tsch C, Lehmkuhl D (eds) Law and legalization in transnational relations. Routledge, London, New York, pp 121鈥?43
  55. Meidinger E (2008) Multi-interest self-governance through global product certification programs. In: Dilling O, Herberg M, Winter G (eds) Responsible business? self-governance in transnational economic transactions. Hart, Oxford, pp 259鈥?91
  56. Meidinger E, Elliott C, Oesten G (eds) (2003) Social and political dimensions of forest certification. Forstbuch, Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany
  57. Michelsen J (2001) Organic farming in regulatory perspective: the Danish case. Sociol Ruralis 41:62鈥?4 CrossRef
  58. Moore P (2004) Patrick Moore and the future of things, certification watch leadership interview with Patrick Moore, part 1
  59. Motavalli J, Howard B (2005) Commentary: sustainable forestry 鈥?with a chainsaw. E-Magazine. http://www.emagazine.com/view/?2530 Accessed 29 March 2009
  60. Muhtaman D (2006) Forest certification in Indonesia. In: Cashore B, Gale F, Meidinger E, Newsom D (eds) Confronting sustainability: forest certification in developing and transitioning countries. Yale, New Haven, pp 33鈥?8
  61. Njovu F (2006) Forest certification in Zambia. In: Cashore B, Gale F, Meidinger E, Newsom D (eds) Confronting sustainability: forest certification in developing and transitioning countries. Yale, New Haven, pp 535鈥?59
  62. O鈥橰ourke D (2006) Multi-stakeholder regulation: privatizing or socializing global labor standards. World Dev 34:899鈥?18 CrossRef
  63. Overdevest C (2004) Codes of conduct and standard setting in the forest sector: constructing markets for democracy? Indust Rel 59:172鈥?98
  64. Overdevest C (2010) Comparing forest certification schemes: the case of ratcheting standards in the forest sector. Socio Econ Rev 8:47鈥?6 CrossRef
  65. Ozinga S (2001) Behind the logo: an environmental and social assessment of forest certification schemes. FERN, Moreton-in-Marsh, UK
  66. Parker C (2002) The open corporation: effective self-regulation and democracy. Cambridge University Press, New York
  67. Pinchot Institute (2009) Pinchot Institute for conservation, certification: definition and background, available online at http://www.pinchot.org/project/59 Accessed 5 Feb 2009
  68. Quivedo L (2006) Forest certification in Bolivia. In: Cashore B, Gale F, Meidinger E, Newsom D (eds) Confronting sustainability: forest certification in developing and transitioning countries. Yale, New Haven, pp 303鈥?36
  69. Rawls J (1971) A theory of justice. Harvard, Cambridge, MA
  70. Sabatier P (1988) An advocacy coalition framework of policy change and the role of policy-oriented learning therein. Policy Sci 21:129鈥?68 CrossRef
  71. Sabel C, Zeitlin J (2007) Learning from difference: the new architecture of experimentalist governance in the European union, European Governance Paper No C-07-02 (May 10, 2007), available online at <http://www.connex-network.org/eurogov/pdf/egp-connex-C-07-02.pdf> (visited 2 Apr 2009)
  72. Sasser E (2003) Gaining leverage: NGO influence on certification institutions in the forest products sector. In: Teeter L, Cashore B, Zhang D (eds) Forest policy for private forestry. CABI, Wallingford
  73. Sasser E, Prakash A, Cashore B, Auld G (2006) Direct targeting as an NGO political strategy: examining private authority regimes in the forestry sector. Bus Politics 8(3):1鈥?2
  74. Schepel H (2005) The constitution of private governance: product standards in the regulation of integrating markets. Hart, Oxford
  75. SFI (2008) Sustainable Forestry Initiative, Bylaws of the Sustainable Forestry Initiative, Inc., June 5, 2008 available online at <http://www.sfiprogram.org/files/pdf/SFI%20Inc%20%20Bylaws%20-%20Final%20June%205th%2009.pdf> (visited 12 Jan 2010)
  76. Shannon M (2003) What is meant by public participation in forest certification processes? Understanding forest certification within democratic governance institutions. In: Meidinger E, Elliott C, Oesten G (eds) Social and political dimensions of forest certification. Forstbuch, Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany
  77. Sprang P et al. (2006) Public procurement and forest certification: assessment of the implications for policy, law and international trade. http://www.ecologic.de/download/briefe/2006/933_brief_procurement_forest.pdf Accessed 15 Jan 2010
  78. Steffek J (2003) The legitimation of international governance: a discourse approach. Eur J Intl Rel 9:249鈥?75 CrossRef
  79. Sunstein C (2007) Deliberating groups versus production markets (or Hayek鈥檚 challenge to Habermas), Chicago Public Law and Legal Theory Working Paper No. 146, University of Chicago Law School (January 2007), available online at <http://ssrn.com/abstract_id=956189> (visited 17 Nov 2007)
  80. Tollefson C, Gale F, Haley D (2008) Setting the standard: certification, governance and the forest stewardship council. University of British Columbia, Vancouver
  81. Tysiachniouk M (2006) Forest certification in Russia. In: Cashore B, Gale F, Meidinger E, Newsom D (eds) Confronting sustainability: forest certification in developing and transitioning countries. Yale, New Haven, pp 261鈥?95
  82. Weber J (2007) Fair trade coffee enthusiasts should confront reality. Cato J 27:109鈥?17
  83. Williams C (2004) Civil society initiatives and 鈥渟oft law鈥?in the oil and gas industry. N Y Univ J Int Law Polit 36:457鈥?02
  84. Wolfers J, Zitzewitz E (2004) Prediction markets. J Econ Perspect 18:107鈥?26 CrossRef
  85. Wood S (2002) Environmental management systems and public authority in Canada: rethinking environmental governance. Buffalo Environ Law J 10:129鈥?10
  
• 作者单位：Errol Meidinger (1) (2)
  
  1. School of Law, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA
  2. Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
  

文摘

This paper explores the possibility that forest certification represents an important emerging form of transnational democracy. Because it is largely driven and administered by nonstate actors, forest certification can be seen as suffering a democracy deficit. However, because it stresses broad participation, intensive deliberative procedures, responsiveness to state law and widely accepted norms, and competition among regulatory programs to achieve effective implementation and widespread public acceptance, forest certification appears to stand up relatively well under generally understood criteria for democratic governance. Nonetheless, a more satisfactory evaluation will require a better understanding of how responsive certification programs are to diverse, emergent constituencies as well as which certification programs win regulatory competitions, and why.