论民国时期科学理想与社会诉求的建构——以进化论的传播为例
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摘要
文章将民国时期生物进化论的传播和普及置于国际科学与文化背景下进行考察,分析了进化论知识如何在科学与社会情境中实现历时性建构。研究发现:进化论在中国的初步传播,是通过非生物学背景的知识精英,他们有意或无意"误读"了生物进化的原因、单位、机制和方向性等问题。民国初期进化论著作的翻译,试图传播生物而非社会进化论,但在内容上未加选取。真正对生物进化论进行传播的,是受过科学教育的科学家,尤其是职业的生物学家。他们通过教材、学校教育、演讲、报纸和期刊等渠道,为公众提供新视角来理解生物进化论和新近的进化思想,试图纠正公众对进化论的误解,但是救国、强国和保种的社会理想以及学科背景,使得他们在纠偏的同时,对进化思想的理解和再论证又有取舍,并融入了自己的社会诉求。互助协作、拉马克范式和优生保种、育种和民生等夹杂于进化思想之间,科学家对进化的阐释出现矛盾。生物学教育中的进化论内容,亦在区隔与融合社会进化论之间,呈现出相同的轨迹——纠偏、理解与再阐释。
In this paper, the dissemination and popularization of the theory of biological evolution in the Republic of China were examined against the international scientific and cultural background, and the diachronic construction of the knowledge of evolution in the scientific and social context was analyzed. It is found that initially the evolutionary theory was disseminated in China by knowledge elites from non-biological backgrounds who intentionally or unintentionally "misread" the causes, units, mechanisms and directions of biological evolution. The translation of evolutionist works in the early Republic of China attempted to disseminate biology rather than social evolutionism, but no selection was made in content. It was scientifically educated scientists, especially professional biologists, who really disseminated the theory of biological evolution. By means of textbooks, school education, speeches, and newspapers and periodicals, they provided the public with new perspectives to understand the theory of biological evolution and latest evolutionary ideas, and tried to correct the public's misunderstanding of evolutionary theory. However, the social ideals of saving the nation, strengthening the country and preserving species, as well as the academic background made them correct their misunderstanding and re-argumentation of evolutionary ideas, and integrate their own social appeals. Mutual cooperation, Lamarck paradigm, salvation with mutual aid, eugenics, and livelihood were intermingled with evolutionary ideas which made the interpretation of evolution conflicting. The content of evolutionism in biology education also showed the same trajectory between the separation and integration of social evolutionism: rectification, understanding, and reinterpretation.
In this paper, the dissemination and popularization of the theory of biological evolution in the Republic of China were examined against the international scientific and cultural background, and the diachronic construction of the knowledge of evolution in the scientific and social context was analyzed. It is found that initially the evolutionary theory was disseminated in China by knowledge elites from non-biological backgrounds who intentionally or unintentionally "misread" the causes, units, mechanisms and directions of biological evolution. The translation of evolutionist works in the early Republic of China attempted to disseminate biology rather than social evolutionism, but no selection was made in content. It was scientifically educated scientists, especially professional biologists, who really disseminated the theory of biological evolution. By means of textbooks, school education, speeches, and newspapers and periodicals, they provided the public with new perspectives to understand the theory of biological evolution and latest evolutionary ideas, and tried to correct the public's misunderstanding of evolutionary theory. However, the social ideals of saving the nation, strengthening the country and preserving species, as well as the academic background made them correct their misunderstanding and re-argumentation of evolutionary ideas, and integrate their own social appeals. Mutual cooperation, Lamarck paradigm, salvation with mutual aid, eugenics, and livelihood were intermingled with evolutionary ideas which made the interpretation of evolution conflicting. The content of evolutionism in biology education also showed the same trajectory between the separation and integration of social evolutionism: rectification, understanding, and reinterpretation.
引文
(1)这些研究包括:Benjamin Schwartz.In Search of Wealth and Power:Yen Fu and the West[M].Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1964;James R.Pusey.China and Charles Darwin[M].Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1983;Haiyan Yang.Encountering Darwin and Creating Darwinism in China[A].in Michael Ruse ed.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Darwin and Evolutionary Thought[C].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013:250-257.
(2)例如:Laurence Schneider.Biology and Revolution in Twentieth-century China[M].Lanham:Rowman&Littlefield,2003.Littlefield,2003.
(3)仅李楠等对《科学》等杂志中有关进化论的条目进行了梳理。见:李楠,姚远.《科学》与生物进化论在中国的传播[J].西北大学学报(自然科学版),2010(1):162-166.
(4)James R.Pusey.Global Darwin:Revolutionary Road[J].Nature,2009,462(7270):162-163.
(5)Ulrich Kutschere.Struggle to Translate Darwins View of Concurrency[J].Nature,2009,458(7241):967.
(6)Ernst Mayr.The Growth of Biological Thought:Diversity,Evolution,and Inheritance[M].Cambridge:Belknap Press,1982:519.
(7)[英]赫胥黎.天演论[M].严复译.北京:科学出版社,1971:5.
(8)樊炳清.进化与进步[J].东方杂志,1918(3):1-7.
(9)Derek Freeman.The Evolutionary Theories of Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer[J].Current Anthropology,1974,15(3):211-237.
(10)Ernst Mayr.The Growth of Biological Thought:Diversity,Evolution,and Inheritance[M].Cambridge:Belknap Press.1982:531.
(11)Edward B.Poulton.Essays on Evolution 1889-1907[M].Oxford:Clarendon Press,1908:193.
(12)Edward B.Poulton.Essays on Evolution 1889-1907[M].Oxford:Clarendon Press,1908:201-202.
(13)[英]约翰·杰德.进化论发现史[M].严既澄译.上海:商务印书馆,1931:1.
(14)金晓星.进化的转义[J].北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2011(5):24-30.
(15)[美]斯各特.进化论证[M].冯景兰译.上海:神州国光社,1930:4-6.
(16)[美]柯脱.进化概论[M].张百艮译.北京:北新书局,1929:87,175.
(17)[日]丘浅次郎.进化论讲话[M].刘文典译.上海:亚东图书馆,1927:1.
(18)[日]大森千藏.最新动物学教科书[M].戴麒译.上海:文明书局,1904:序.
(19)陈兼善.进化论浅说第七种[M].上海:中华书局,1924:序.
(20)这些教科书有:陈兼善.新中华生物学[M].上海:世界书局,1932;陈兼善.高中生物学[M].上海:中华书局,1934;吴瑞庭编,陈兼善校.师范生物学[M].上海:中华科学教育改进社,1935;陈兼善.新撰初级中学教科书动物学[M].上海:商务印书馆,1925.
(21)王树鼎.生物学[M].天津:百城书局,1932:274-288.
(22)陈桢.普通生物学[M].上海:商务印书馆,1929:序.
(23)Laurence Schneider.Biology and Revolution in Twentieth-century China[M].Lanham:Rowman&Littlefield,2003:40.
(24)清华大学校史研究室编.清华大学史料选编第二卷(上册)国立清华大学时期(1928—1937)[M].北京:清华大学出版社,1991:423-424.
(25)谈家桢,赵功民.中国遗传学史[M].上海:上海科技教育出版社,2002:532-533.
(26)陈桢.复兴高级中学教科书生物学[M].上海:商务印书馆,1950:268.
(27)周建人.生存竞争与互助[J].新青年,1920(2):70-76.
(28)周建人.赫胥黎与达尔文进化说[J].东方杂志,1925(12):72-75.
(29)度.论述有机演化之新证据[J].南大周刊,1926(29):49-50.
(30)陈兼善.进化之方法[J].民铎杂志,1922(4):1-20.
(31)王兼善.植物学[M].北京:商务印书馆,1913:4.
(32)周建人.达尔文以后的进化思想[J].东方杂志,1921(23):40-49.
(33)周建人.进化与退化[J].上海青年,1931(12-16):7.
(34)周建人.动物学(上)[M].上海:商务印书馆,1937:编辑大意.
(35)朱光潜.进化论证[J].民铎杂志,1922(4):1-22.
(36)沈霁春.有机体的适应:演化论中的一个重要问题[J].复旦旬刊,1927(3):34-35.
(37)刘咸.科学史上之最近二十年[J].科学,1936(1):4-11.
(38)新天演学说[J].科学,1915(2):221-222.
(39)Lindley Darden.William Bateson and the Promise of Mendelism[J].Journal of History of Biology,1977,10(1):87-106.
(40)秉志.生物学概论[J].科学,1915(1):78-85.
(41)秉志.动物学与人生[J].社友,1933(30):1-2.除了此次演讲,秉志还在科学专业刊物上强调国人应该互助结群,通过动物的生存消长,萌发爱国爱种的思想。参见秉志.动物与人生[J].生物科学杂志,1936(2):93-96.
(42)袁善征.动物学教员准备书(上)[M].上海:商务印书馆,1935:7-10.
(43)张子高.科学发达略史[M].北京:中华书局,1946:219.
(44)刘咸.科学史上之最近二十年[J].科学,1936(1):4-11.
(45)何定杰.生物进化论-进化法则的探讨[M].乐山:文化印书馆,1944.
(46)G.G.Maccurdy,汪发缵译.人类文化天演之证明[J],科学,1927(5):660-661.
(47)陆费执,张念恃.新中学教科书初级生物学[M].上海:中华书局,1925.
(48)陆费执,郦福畴.新中学教科书高级生物学[M].上海:中华书局,1926.
(49)参见植物学和动物学部分,教育部中小学课程暂行标准起草委员会编订.中小学课程暂行标准第2册初级中学之部[M].上海:卿云图书公司,1929.
(50)吴元涤.生物学[M].上海:世界书局,1932:序.
(51)杨寅初.中等学校生物学教学法[M].上海:正中书局,1937:序.
(52)其演讲稿见:秉志.动物天演之一瞥[J].科学,1934(5):595-601.
(53)胡祖荫.周建人校.小学生分年补充读本五年级自然科生物和优生进化[M].上海,商务印书馆,1936:34,50.
(54)王其澍.近世生物学[M].上海:商务印书馆,1929:1.
(55)秉志.关于民族之进化[J].中国建设,1947(2):32-33.
(56)Yuehtsen Juliette Chung.Better Science and Better Race?:Social Darwinism and Chinese eugenics[J].Isis,2014,105(4):793-802.
(57)优生学(Eugenics)这一名词是希腊词语好(good)和代(generation)的组合。
(58)Molly J.Simis,Haley Madden,Michael A.Cacciatore,Sara K.Yeo.The Lure of Rationality:Why Does the Deficit Model Persist in Science Communication?[J].Public Understanding of Science,2016,25(4):400-414.
(59)Deena Skolnick Weisberg,Asheley R.Landrum,S.Emlen Metz, Michael Weisberg.No Missing Link:Knowledge Predicts Acceptance of Evolution in the United States[J].BioScience,2018,68(3):212-222.
(2)例如:Laurence Schneider.Biology and Revolution in Twentieth-century China[M].Lanham:Rowman&Littlefield,2003.Littlefield,2003.
(3)仅李楠等对《科学》等杂志中有关进化论的条目进行了梳理。见:李楠,姚远.《科学》与生物进化论在中国的传播[J].西北大学学报(自然科学版),2010(1):162-166.
(4)James R.Pusey.Global Darwin:Revolutionary Road[J].Nature,2009,462(7270):162-163.
(5)Ulrich Kutschere.Struggle to Translate Darwins View of Concurrency[J].Nature,2009,458(7241):967.
(6)Ernst Mayr.The Growth of Biological Thought:Diversity,Evolution,and Inheritance[M].Cambridge:Belknap Press,1982:519.
(7)[英]赫胥黎.天演论[M].严复译.北京:科学出版社,1971:5.
(8)樊炳清.进化与进步[J].东方杂志,1918(3):1-7.
(9)Derek Freeman.The Evolutionary Theories of Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer[J].Current Anthropology,1974,15(3):211-237.
(10)Ernst Mayr.The Growth of Biological Thought:Diversity,Evolution,and Inheritance[M].Cambridge:Belknap Press.1982:531.
(11)Edward B.Poulton.Essays on Evolution 1889-1907[M].Oxford:Clarendon Press,1908:193.
(12)Edward B.Poulton.Essays on Evolution 1889-1907[M].Oxford:Clarendon Press,1908:201-202.
(13)[英]约翰·杰德.进化论发现史[M].严既澄译.上海:商务印书馆,1931:1.
(14)金晓星.进化的转义[J].北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2011(5):24-30.
(15)[美]斯各特.进化论证[M].冯景兰译.上海:神州国光社,1930:4-6.
(16)[美]柯脱.进化概论[M].张百艮译.北京:北新书局,1929:87,175.
(17)[日]丘浅次郎.进化论讲话[M].刘文典译.上海:亚东图书馆,1927:1.
(18)[日]大森千藏.最新动物学教科书[M].戴麒译.上海:文明书局,1904:序.
(19)陈兼善.进化论浅说第七种[M].上海:中华书局,1924:序.
(20)这些教科书有:陈兼善.新中华生物学[M].上海:世界书局,1932;陈兼善.高中生物学[M].上海:中华书局,1934;吴瑞庭编,陈兼善校.师范生物学[M].上海:中华科学教育改进社,1935;陈兼善.新撰初级中学教科书动物学[M].上海:商务印书馆,1925.
(21)王树鼎.生物学[M].天津:百城书局,1932:274-288.
(22)陈桢.普通生物学[M].上海:商务印书馆,1929:序.
(23)Laurence Schneider.Biology and Revolution in Twentieth-century China[M].Lanham:Rowman&Littlefield,2003:40.
(24)清华大学校史研究室编.清华大学史料选编第二卷(上册)国立清华大学时期(1928—1937)[M].北京:清华大学出版社,1991:423-424.
(25)谈家桢,赵功民.中国遗传学史[M].上海:上海科技教育出版社,2002:532-533.
(26)陈桢.复兴高级中学教科书生物学[M].上海:商务印书馆,1950:268.
(27)周建人.生存竞争与互助[J].新青年,1920(2):70-76.
(28)周建人.赫胥黎与达尔文进化说[J].东方杂志,1925(12):72-75.
(29)度.论述有机演化之新证据[J].南大周刊,1926(29):49-50.
(30)陈兼善.进化之方法[J].民铎杂志,1922(4):1-20.
(31)王兼善.植物学[M].北京:商务印书馆,1913:4.
(32)周建人.达尔文以后的进化思想[J].东方杂志,1921(23):40-49.
(33)周建人.进化与退化[J].上海青年,1931(12-16):7.
(34)周建人.动物学(上)[M].上海:商务印书馆,1937:编辑大意.
(35)朱光潜.进化论证[J].民铎杂志,1922(4):1-22.
(36)沈霁春.有机体的适应:演化论中的一个重要问题[J].复旦旬刊,1927(3):34-35.
(37)刘咸.科学史上之最近二十年[J].科学,1936(1):4-11.
(38)新天演学说[J].科学,1915(2):221-222.
(39)Lindley Darden.William Bateson and the Promise of Mendelism[J].Journal of History of Biology,1977,10(1):87-106.
(40)秉志.生物学概论[J].科学,1915(1):78-85.
(41)秉志.动物学与人生[J].社友,1933(30):1-2.除了此次演讲,秉志还在科学专业刊物上强调国人应该互助结群,通过动物的生存消长,萌发爱国爱种的思想。参见秉志.动物与人生[J].生物科学杂志,1936(2):93-96.
(42)袁善征.动物学教员准备书(上)[M].上海:商务印书馆,1935:7-10.
(43)张子高.科学发达略史[M].北京:中华书局,1946:219.
(44)刘咸.科学史上之最近二十年[J].科学,1936(1):4-11.
(45)何定杰.生物进化论-进化法则的探讨[M].乐山:文化印书馆,1944.
(46)G.G.Maccurdy,汪发缵译.人类文化天演之证明[J],科学,1927(5):660-661.
(47)陆费执,张念恃.新中学教科书初级生物学[M].上海:中华书局,1925.
(48)陆费执,郦福畴.新中学教科书高级生物学[M].上海:中华书局,1926.
(49)参见植物学和动物学部分,教育部中小学课程暂行标准起草委员会编订.中小学课程暂行标准第2册初级中学之部[M].上海:卿云图书公司,1929.
(50)吴元涤.生物学[M].上海:世界书局,1932:序.
(51)杨寅初.中等学校生物学教学法[M].上海:正中书局,1937:序.
(52)其演讲稿见:秉志.动物天演之一瞥[J].科学,1934(5):595-601.
(53)胡祖荫.周建人校.小学生分年补充读本五年级自然科生物和优生进化[M].上海,商务印书馆,1936:34,50.
(54)王其澍.近世生物学[M].上海:商务印书馆,1929:1.
(55)秉志.关于民族之进化[J].中国建设,1947(2):32-33.
(56)Yuehtsen Juliette Chung.Better Science and Better Race?:Social Darwinism and Chinese eugenics[J].Isis,2014,105(4):793-802.
(57)优生学(Eugenics)这一名词是希腊词语好(good)和代(generation)的组合。
(58)Molly J.Simis,Haley Madden,Michael A.Cacciatore,Sara K.Yeo.The Lure of Rationality:Why Does the Deficit Model Persist in Science Communication?[J].Public Understanding of Science,2016,25(4):400-414.
(59)Deena Skolnick Weisberg,Asheley R.Landrum,S.Emlen Metz, Michael Weisberg.No Missing Link:Knowledge Predicts Acceptance of Evolution in the United States[J].BioScience,2018,68(3):212-222.