政治游说与社会公关:库尔德移民对欧盟库尔德政策制定的影响
|
摘要
欧洲是库尔德人在库尔德斯坦之外的最大聚居地。欧盟库尔德移民群体高度政治化,民族归属感强烈。库尔德移民积极开展各种活动,唤醒欧盟社会关注库尔德人的生存状况,游说欧盟支持库尔德人利益诉求。近年来,随着中东陷入动荡和叙利亚战争爆发,尤其是极端组织"伊斯兰国"兴起和大规模叙利亚难民潮的出现,在库尔德移民组织积极游说下,欧盟对库尔德人的态度与政策发生积极变化。这主要表现在:欧盟社会对库尔德人同情感普遍提升;扩大与库尔德人直接联系与交往;加大对库尔德人的支持力度,尤其是军事支持;将库尔德人提升到伙伴和盟友的重要地位;敢于因库尔德问题与土耳其进行对抗。虽然欧盟对库尔德政策并未发生根本转变,仍对库尔德人独立建国持反对态度,但库尔德移民在欧洲社会日渐上升的影响却是不争事实。
Europe has the largest Kurdish immigrates outside Kurdistan.In recent years, there have been some notable changes in the EU's Kurdish policy, largely thanks to lobbying and public relations by Kurdish immigrant groups in Europe.the turmoil in the Middle East and the outbreak of the Syrian war, especially the rise of "ISIS", helped to change the attitude and policy of the EU towards the Kurds under the active lobbying of the Kurdish immigration organizations: the general increase of sympathy for the kurds in the European Union society;Expanding direct contacts and contacts with the kurds;Increased support for the kurds, especially military;Elevating the kurds to a position of importance as partners and Allies;Dare to confront Turkey over Kurdish issues.While there has been no fundamental shift in EU policy towards the kurds and the EU remains opposed to an independent Kurdish state, the growing influence of Kurdish migration in European society is indisputable.Despite some progress, there has been no fundamental change in EU policy.The Kurdish lobby has many weaknesses to overcome.
Europe has the largest Kurdish immigrates outside Kurdistan.In recent years, there have been some notable changes in the EU's Kurdish policy, largely thanks to lobbying and public relations by Kurdish immigrant groups in Europe.the turmoil in the Middle East and the outbreak of the Syrian war, especially the rise of "ISIS", helped to change the attitude and policy of the EU towards the Kurds under the active lobbying of the Kurdish immigration organizations: the general increase of sympathy for the kurds in the European Union society;Expanding direct contacts and contacts with the kurds;Increased support for the kurds, especially military;Elevating the kurds to a position of importance as partners and Allies;Dare to confront Turkey over Kurdish issues.While there has been no fundamental shift in EU policy towards the kurds and the EU remains opposed to an independent Kurdish state, the growing influence of Kurdish migration in European society is indisputable.Despite some progress, there has been no fundamental change in EU policy.The Kurdish lobby has many weaknesses to overcome.
引文
(1)1961年10月,联邦德国与土耳其签署劳工协议;1964年,比利时、荷兰和奥地利分别与土耳其签署协议;1965年,法国与土耳其签署协议;1967年,瑞典和土耳其签署协议。
(2)See“Syrians in Germany”,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrians_in_Germany,2019-03-20.
(3)“97 Kurdish Refugees Stranded in Closed Camp in Hungary:Foundation”,https://ekurd.net/kurdish-refugees-hungary-2019-04-10,2019-04-12.
(4)Roni Alasor and Lorin Sarkisian,“EU Urges Turkey to Find Political Solution to Kurdish Issue”,http://www.ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2012/3/turkey3865.htm,2019-03-20.
(5)参见“库尔德-欧洲协会”的网站:http://www.kurdisheuropean.eu/en/about,2019-03-20。
(6)“Kurdish Diaspora”,https://www.institutkurde.org/en/info/kurdish-diaspora-1232550988,2019-03-20.
(7)Roni Alasor and Lorin Sarkisian,op.cit.
(8)详见“库尔德人在柏林”网站:http://kurdbe.de/Adress/verein.html,2019-04-04。
(9)总部设在英国。
(10)由英国的一名库尔德裔政治家建立。
(11)此外,还在美国、俄罗斯、澳大利亚和伊朗设立了代表处。
(12)在华盛顿、莫斯科也设立了办事处。
(13)“Rojava’s First Representation Office outside Kurdistan Opens in Moscow”,https://www.nationalia.info/new/10714/rojava-first-representation-office-outside-kurdistan-opens-in-moscow,2019-03-25.
(14)“New EU Strategy on Support to Iraq while Kurdish Independence Put on Hold”,http://www.brusselstimes.com/eu-affairs/10028/new-eu-strategy-on-support-to-iraq-while-kurdish-independence-put-on-hold,2019-03-31.
(15)土耳其是欧洲委员会创始成员国之一。
(16)参见人民民主党的网站:http://en.hdpeurope.com/?page_id=132,2019-04-01。
(17)该组织于2018年2月成立。
(18)Wladimir van Wilgenburg,“Six Kurds Elected to Swedish Parliament”,http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/b721d5cc-db3d-45a7-a3ec-c5cdf808a40f,2019-04-10.
(19)刘作奎:《土耳其库尔德工人党的“欧洲化”——一种新制度主义的分析》,载《西亚非洲》2009年8期,第33～38页。
(20)在库尔德社会,男女地位比较平等,男权意识不太浓。尤其是库尔德女战士,与男人们一起并肩作战,更是吸引了全球的目光。
(21)Ibrahim Dogus,“In the Chaos of the Middle East,the World Must Stand behind the Kurds”,https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/staggers/2016/02/chaos-middle-east-world-must-stand-behind-kurd,2019-04-02.
(22)David Patrikarakos,“Why Won’t Britain Support the Kurdish Referendum?”,https://blogs.spectator.co.uk/2017/09/why-wont-britain-support-the-kurdish-referendum,2019-04-06.
(23)“Supporters of Independent Kurdistan Seek EU Backing”,https://www.dw.com/en/supporters-of-independent-kurdistan-seek-eu-backing/a-40437495,2019-04-02.
(24)雅兹迪人是库尔德人的一支,信奉雅兹迪教。
(25)转引自刘作奎:前引文。
(26)“Bilateral Relations with the Kurdistan Region in Iraq”,https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CDP-2019-0056,2019-04-09.
(27)Houzan Mahmoud,“Letter:Why We Support the Outcome of the Kurdish People’s Referendum for Independence”,https://conatusnews.com/letter-support-kurdish-independence,2019-04-04.
(28)“The Guardian View on the Kurdish Referendum:A Fair Question”,The Guardian,September 22,2017.
(29)Jan M.Olsen and Karl Ritter,“Kurds in Europe Take up Arms against IS Group”,https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/sep/16/kurds-in-europe-take-up-arms-against-is-group,2019-04-09.
(30)“French Warrior Fighting with Syrian Kurds Killed in Battle against Islamic State”,https://ekurd.net/french-warrior-syrian-kurds-2018-10-11,2019-04-09.
(31)Committee on International Relations,“The Middle East:Time for New Realism ”,2 May 2017-HL Paper 159,https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldintrel/159/159.pdf,pp.66-69,2019-04-10.
(32)David Patrikarakos,“Why won’t Britain Support the Kurdish Referendum?”,https://blogs.spectator.co.uk/2017/09/why-wont-britain-support-the-kurdish-referendum,2019-04-06.
(33)Committee on International Relations,“The Middle East:Time for New Realism”,2 May 2017-HL Paper 159,https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldintrel/159/159.pdf,2019-04-10.
(34)该机构于2015年设立。
(35)“EU Ministers Give Nod To Arming Iraqi Kurds”,https://www.rferl.org/a/iraq-eu-arming-kurds/26531921.html,2019-04-08.
(36)“German Parliament Extends Peshmerga Training”,Rudaw,Dec.12,2017.
(37)土耳其视其为库尔德工人党在叙利亚的分支,并将其列为恐怖组织。
(38)“‘France Is Abetting Terrorism’-Erdogan Blasts French Support for Syrian Kurds”,https://www.rt.com/news/423511-erdogan-france-abetting-terrorists,2019-04-08.
(39)Helbast Shekhani,“French Troops Arrive in Kurdish-controlled Northeastern Syria:Reports”,http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/94884bae-5e86-4f13-b3db-805e4a0beced,2019-04-08.
(40)Sangar Ali,“Sending Additional Troops to Syria Amounts to ‘An Invasion’:Turkey Warns France”,http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/2e308f7e-3a7d-41cd-8f5a-ffb8471b60a7,2019-04-08.
(41)“France’s Macron Says Deeply Regrets Trump Decision on Troops in Syrian Kurdistan”,https://ekurd.net/france-macron-trump-syria-2018-12-23,2019-04-09.
(42)Wladimir van Wilgenburg,“Dutch Government Party Wants to Send Soldiers to Syria to Stop Turkish Invasion”,http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/5e555860-218d-4f1b-8dee-854245859e1c,2019-04-09.
(43)“The ECHR and Human Rights Violations against Kurds in Turkey”,http://ec.europa.eu/research/infocentre/article_en.cfm?artid=49702,2019-04-08.
(44)“German Parties in Parliament Condemn Turkey’s Afrin Operation”,Rudaw,http://www.rudaw.net/english/world/010220181,2019-04-10.
(45)“Czech President Lambasts Turkey as Daesh’s De-Facto Ally”,https://sputniknews.com/europe/201903201073392263-czech-president-turkey-daesh-ally,2019-04-10.
(46)[法国]《费加罗报》2018年1月31日。
(47)Miran Koc,“Integration of Kurds in Europe”,http://www.kurdisheuropean.eu/en/news/integration-of-kurds-in-europe,2019-04-10.
(48)Gary Kent,“British MP’s Argue for Easier Travel to Safe Kurdistan Region”,http://www.rudaw.net/english/world/06032019,2019-04-10.
(49)Committee on International Relations,“The Middle East:Time for New Realism”,2 May 2017-HL Paper 159,https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldintrel/159/159.pdf,2019-04-10.
(50)Hisham Arafat,“Syrian Kurds open diplomatic missions in Europe”,http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/1920fadf-b1b3-4743-82df-1fc18ddad4e8/Syrian-Kurds-open-diplomatic-missions-in-Europe,2019-04-10.
(51)“Supporters of Independent Kurdistan Seek EU Backing”,https://www.dw.com/en/supporters-of-independent-kurdistan-seek-eu-backing/a-40437495,2019-04-10.
(52)“Turkey’s PKK Conflict:A Visual Explainer”,https://www.crisisgroup.org/content/turkeys-pkk-conflict-visual-explainer,2019-04-10.
(53)“The ECHR and Human Rights Violations against Kurds in Turkey”,http://ec.europa.eu/research/infocentre/article_en.cfm?artid=49702,2019-04-10.
(54)Ayse Betul Elik and Bahar Rumelili,“Necessary But Not Sufficient:The Role of the EU in Resolving Turkey’s Kurdish Question and the Greek-Turkish Conflicts”,European Foreign Affairs Review,http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/220/1/3011800000729.pdf,2019-04-10.
(55)“Country Updates on Human Rights and Democracy 2017”,https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/eeas/files/compiled_country_updates_annual_report_on_human_rights_and_democrac y_2017_clean_0.pdf,2019-04-11.
(56)European Commission,“Turkey 2018 Report”,https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/20180417-turkey-report.pdf,2019-04-11.
(57)Wladimir van Wilgenburg,“French Defense Minister:Continuing Mission in Syria without US May be Impossible”,http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/9f0a13ae-98e0-4020-a6e0-50174f2bd526,2019-04-10.
(58)Brendan O’Neill,“The West Is Betraying the Kurds and Allowing them to Be Massacred”,The Telegraph,28 July 2015.
(59)Hisham Arafat,“EU,US Compromise with Turkey on Human Values”,http://www.kurdistan 24.net/en/news/964ff3c7-de47-4187-8428-8165e877302e,2019-04-11.
(60)Salahdin Koban,“Why the Kurdish Lobby in Germany Is So Weak”,http://www.rudaw.net/english/opinion/21122018,2019-04-11.
(2)See“Syrians in Germany”,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrians_in_Germany,2019-03-20.
(3)“97 Kurdish Refugees Stranded in Closed Camp in Hungary:Foundation”,https://ekurd.net/kurdish-refugees-hungary-2019-04-10,2019-04-12.
(4)Roni Alasor and Lorin Sarkisian,“EU Urges Turkey to Find Political Solution to Kurdish Issue”,http://www.ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2012/3/turkey3865.htm,2019-03-20.
(5)参见“库尔德-欧洲协会”的网站:http://www.kurdisheuropean.eu/en/about,2019-03-20。
(6)“Kurdish Diaspora”,https://www.institutkurde.org/en/info/kurdish-diaspora-1232550988,2019-03-20.
(7)Roni Alasor and Lorin Sarkisian,op.cit.
(8)详见“库尔德人在柏林”网站:http://kurdbe.de/Adress/verein.html,2019-04-04。
(9)总部设在英国。
(10)由英国的一名库尔德裔政治家建立。
(11)此外,还在美国、俄罗斯、澳大利亚和伊朗设立了代表处。
(12)在华盛顿、莫斯科也设立了办事处。
(13)“Rojava’s First Representation Office outside Kurdistan Opens in Moscow”,https://www.nationalia.info/new/10714/rojava-first-representation-office-outside-kurdistan-opens-in-moscow,2019-03-25.
(14)“New EU Strategy on Support to Iraq while Kurdish Independence Put on Hold”,http://www.brusselstimes.com/eu-affairs/10028/new-eu-strategy-on-support-to-iraq-while-kurdish-independence-put-on-hold,2019-03-31.
(15)土耳其是欧洲委员会创始成员国之一。
(16)参见人民民主党的网站:http://en.hdpeurope.com/?page_id=132,2019-04-01。
(17)该组织于2018年2月成立。
(18)Wladimir van Wilgenburg,“Six Kurds Elected to Swedish Parliament”,http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/b721d5cc-db3d-45a7-a3ec-c5cdf808a40f,2019-04-10.
(19)刘作奎:《土耳其库尔德工人党的“欧洲化”——一种新制度主义的分析》,载《西亚非洲》2009年8期,第33～38页。
(20)在库尔德社会,男女地位比较平等,男权意识不太浓。尤其是库尔德女战士,与男人们一起并肩作战,更是吸引了全球的目光。
(21)Ibrahim Dogus,“In the Chaos of the Middle East,the World Must Stand behind the Kurds”,https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/staggers/2016/02/chaos-middle-east-world-must-stand-behind-kurd,2019-04-02.
(22)David Patrikarakos,“Why Won’t Britain Support the Kurdish Referendum?”,https://blogs.spectator.co.uk/2017/09/why-wont-britain-support-the-kurdish-referendum,2019-04-06.
(23)“Supporters of Independent Kurdistan Seek EU Backing”,https://www.dw.com/en/supporters-of-independent-kurdistan-seek-eu-backing/a-40437495,2019-04-02.
(24)雅兹迪人是库尔德人的一支,信奉雅兹迪教。
(25)转引自刘作奎:前引文。
(26)“Bilateral Relations with the Kurdistan Region in Iraq”,https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CDP-2019-0056,2019-04-09.
(27)Houzan Mahmoud,“Letter:Why We Support the Outcome of the Kurdish People’s Referendum for Independence”,https://conatusnews.com/letter-support-kurdish-independence,2019-04-04.
(28)“The Guardian View on the Kurdish Referendum:A Fair Question”,The Guardian,September 22,2017.
(29)Jan M.Olsen and Karl Ritter,“Kurds in Europe Take up Arms against IS Group”,https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/sep/16/kurds-in-europe-take-up-arms-against-is-group,2019-04-09.
(30)“French Warrior Fighting with Syrian Kurds Killed in Battle against Islamic State”,https://ekurd.net/french-warrior-syrian-kurds-2018-10-11,2019-04-09.
(31)Committee on International Relations,“The Middle East:Time for New Realism ”,2 May 2017-HL Paper 159,https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldintrel/159/159.pdf,pp.66-69,2019-04-10.
(32)David Patrikarakos,“Why won’t Britain Support the Kurdish Referendum?”,https://blogs.spectator.co.uk/2017/09/why-wont-britain-support-the-kurdish-referendum,2019-04-06.
(33)Committee on International Relations,“The Middle East:Time for New Realism”,2 May 2017-HL Paper 159,https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldintrel/159/159.pdf,2019-04-10.
(34)该机构于2015年设立。
(35)“EU Ministers Give Nod To Arming Iraqi Kurds”,https://www.rferl.org/a/iraq-eu-arming-kurds/26531921.html,2019-04-08.
(36)“German Parliament Extends Peshmerga Training”,Rudaw,Dec.12,2017.
(37)土耳其视其为库尔德工人党在叙利亚的分支,并将其列为恐怖组织。
(38)“‘France Is Abetting Terrorism’-Erdogan Blasts French Support for Syrian Kurds”,https://www.rt.com/news/423511-erdogan-france-abetting-terrorists,2019-04-08.
(39)Helbast Shekhani,“French Troops Arrive in Kurdish-controlled Northeastern Syria:Reports”,http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/94884bae-5e86-4f13-b3db-805e4a0beced,2019-04-08.
(40)Sangar Ali,“Sending Additional Troops to Syria Amounts to ‘An Invasion’:Turkey Warns France”,http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/2e308f7e-3a7d-41cd-8f5a-ffb8471b60a7,2019-04-08.
(41)“France’s Macron Says Deeply Regrets Trump Decision on Troops in Syrian Kurdistan”,https://ekurd.net/france-macron-trump-syria-2018-12-23,2019-04-09.
(42)Wladimir van Wilgenburg,“Dutch Government Party Wants to Send Soldiers to Syria to Stop Turkish Invasion”,http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/5e555860-218d-4f1b-8dee-854245859e1c,2019-04-09.
(43)“The ECHR and Human Rights Violations against Kurds in Turkey”,http://ec.europa.eu/research/infocentre/article_en.cfm?artid=49702,2019-04-08.
(44)“German Parties in Parliament Condemn Turkey’s Afrin Operation”,Rudaw,http://www.rudaw.net/english/world/010220181,2019-04-10.
(45)“Czech President Lambasts Turkey as Daesh’s De-Facto Ally”,https://sputniknews.com/europe/201903201073392263-czech-president-turkey-daesh-ally,2019-04-10.
(46)[法国]《费加罗报》2018年1月31日。
(47)Miran Koc,“Integration of Kurds in Europe”,http://www.kurdisheuropean.eu/en/news/integration-of-kurds-in-europe,2019-04-10.
(48)Gary Kent,“British MP’s Argue for Easier Travel to Safe Kurdistan Region”,http://www.rudaw.net/english/world/06032019,2019-04-10.
(49)Committee on International Relations,“The Middle East:Time for New Realism”,2 May 2017-HL Paper 159,https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldintrel/159/159.pdf,2019-04-10.
(50)Hisham Arafat,“Syrian Kurds open diplomatic missions in Europe”,http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/1920fadf-b1b3-4743-82df-1fc18ddad4e8/Syrian-Kurds-open-diplomatic-missions-in-Europe,2019-04-10.
(51)“Supporters of Independent Kurdistan Seek EU Backing”,https://www.dw.com/en/supporters-of-independent-kurdistan-seek-eu-backing/a-40437495,2019-04-10.
(52)“Turkey’s PKK Conflict:A Visual Explainer”,https://www.crisisgroup.org/content/turkeys-pkk-conflict-visual-explainer,2019-04-10.
(53)“The ECHR and Human Rights Violations against Kurds in Turkey”,http://ec.europa.eu/research/infocentre/article_en.cfm?artid=49702,2019-04-10.
(54)Ayse Betul Elik and Bahar Rumelili,“Necessary But Not Sufficient:The Role of the EU in Resolving Turkey’s Kurdish Question and the Greek-Turkish Conflicts”,European Foreign Affairs Review,http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/220/1/3011800000729.pdf,2019-04-10.
(55)“Country Updates on Human Rights and Democracy 2017”,https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/eeas/files/compiled_country_updates_annual_report_on_human_rights_and_democrac y_2017_clean_0.pdf,2019-04-11.
(56)European Commission,“Turkey 2018 Report”,https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/20180417-turkey-report.pdf,2019-04-11.
(57)Wladimir van Wilgenburg,“French Defense Minister:Continuing Mission in Syria without US May be Impossible”,http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/9f0a13ae-98e0-4020-a6e0-50174f2bd526,2019-04-10.
(58)Brendan O’Neill,“The West Is Betraying the Kurds and Allowing them to Be Massacred”,The Telegraph,28 July 2015.
(59)Hisham Arafat,“EU,US Compromise with Turkey on Human Values”,http://www.kurdistan 24.net/en/news/964ff3c7-de47-4187-8428-8165e877302e,2019-04-11.
(60)Salahdin Koban,“Why the Kurdish Lobby in Germany Is So Weak”,http://www.rudaw.net/english/opinion/21122018,2019-04-11.