以貌取人可行吗?——基于面孔的特质推理及准确性
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摘要
面孔特质推理是知觉者凭借目标对象的面部线索推理其特质的过程,其线索主要包括面部特征、面部构型、表情以及面孔的社会分类线索。基于面孔的特质推理具有适度准确性,采用客观指标的准确性研究发现,知觉者能由目标对象面孔准确推断其外向性、可信性等特质;而基于主观指标的研究表明人们并不能准确评估自身基于面孔的特质推理能力。面孔特质推理的准确性主要受到知觉对象的生理特征、知觉者的生理心理因素以及情境的影响。未来研究需进一步明确特质推理的面部线索,完善和丰富准确性指标,并在中国文化下背景下考察面孔和特质的关系。
People believe that the face is a window to a person's true nature, and they often judge a person by his/her appearance. Whether individuals' characters can be judged accurately on the basis of faces and how is the judgment made? These questions have attracted the attention of psychologists to the phenomenon of Face-Based Trait Inference(FBTI), which refers to the process of inferring individuals' traits from their faces. Facial features, configuration, expression and social category cues were normally used for trait inference. Previous research showed that people could infer individuals' traits of extroversion and trustworthiness with facial cues. Initially, researchers adopted Social Cognition Accuracy(SCA) indicators to assess the accuracy of FBTI, which included observers' consistency, observer-target consistency, and the predictive power of facial cues to behaviors. Due to limitations of SCA, accuracy models such as lens model and the social accuracy model were applied for the study of FBTI. Both SCA and accuracy models were objective indicators. In addition to the objective indicators, many researchers paid attention to the subjective indicator(meta-accuracy). Meta-accuracy inflected how well people could evaluate their own ability to make effective attribution on the basis of facial cues. Studies based on objective indicators indicated that the accuracy of FBTI was moderate. Only some traits which were associated with observability and beneficial outcomes could be judged accurately. For objective indicators, individuals could not evaluate their inferring performance appropriately. Although, to some extent, it was possible to infer traits from faces, we should be cautious of this psychological phenomenon and avoid the consequences of false inference. A large number of factors affected the accuracy of FBTI, including targets, observers and situations. In terms of targets, their physiologic factors, such as gender, age and facial attractiveness, significantly affected the accuracy of FBTI. Previous studies showed that individuals could accurately infer traits of women and old people on the basis of their faces. However, the influence of facial attractiveness on accuracy was unclear. For observers, physiologic and psychological factors such as motivation, personality, experience and stereotype had an influence on the accuracy of FBTI. Moreover, similarity between targets and observers such as race, age and appearance also affected the accuracy. In addition to targets and observers, situational factors and some other variables also affected the accuracy of FBTI.There are still many deficiencies in the current research on FBTI. In terms of cues used for trait inference, the influence of facial cues and their interactions on FBTI remains to be clarified. There are defects in existing objective indicators and the type of subjective indicator is relatively limited. In addition, the cross-cultural validity of FBTI should be tested. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the interaction between facial cues and its influence on FBTI. New measurement indicators should be developed to analyze the accuracy of FBTI. Further studies should explore the relationship between faces and traits in the Chinese context.
People believe that the face is a window to a person's true nature, and they often judge a person by his/her appearance. Whether individuals' characters can be judged accurately on the basis of faces and how is the judgment made? These questions have attracted the attention of psychologists to the phenomenon of Face-Based Trait Inference(FBTI), which refers to the process of inferring individuals' traits from their faces. Facial features, configuration, expression and social category cues were normally used for trait inference. Previous research showed that people could infer individuals' traits of extroversion and trustworthiness with facial cues. Initially, researchers adopted Social Cognition Accuracy(SCA) indicators to assess the accuracy of FBTI, which included observers' consistency, observer-target consistency, and the predictive power of facial cues to behaviors. Due to limitations of SCA, accuracy models such as lens model and the social accuracy model were applied for the study of FBTI. Both SCA and accuracy models were objective indicators. In addition to the objective indicators, many researchers paid attention to the subjective indicator(meta-accuracy). Meta-accuracy inflected how well people could evaluate their own ability to make effective attribution on the basis of facial cues. Studies based on objective indicators indicated that the accuracy of FBTI was moderate. Only some traits which were associated with observability and beneficial outcomes could be judged accurately. For objective indicators, individuals could not evaluate their inferring performance appropriately. Although, to some extent, it was possible to infer traits from faces, we should be cautious of this psychological phenomenon and avoid the consequences of false inference. A large number of factors affected the accuracy of FBTI, including targets, observers and situations. In terms of targets, their physiologic factors, such as gender, age and facial attractiveness, significantly affected the accuracy of FBTI. Previous studies showed that individuals could accurately infer traits of women and old people on the basis of their faces. However, the influence of facial attractiveness on accuracy was unclear. For observers, physiologic and psychological factors such as motivation, personality, experience and stereotype had an influence on the accuracy of FBTI. Moreover, similarity between targets and observers such as race, age and appearance also affected the accuracy. In addition to targets and observers, situational factors and some other variables also affected the accuracy of FBTI.There are still many deficiencies in the current research on FBTI. In terms of cues used for trait inference, the influence of facial cues and their interactions on FBTI remains to be clarified. There are defects in existing objective indicators and the type of subjective indicator is relatively limited. In addition, the cross-cultural validity of FBTI should be tested. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the interaction between facial cues and its influence on FBTI. New measurement indicators should be developed to analyze the accuracy of FBTI. Further studies should explore the relationship between faces and traits in the Chinese context.
引文
陈睿,田宇,马谐,王晓曦,何顺超,李鹏.(2017).男性与女性对不同性别和种族面孔识别的差异.应用心理学,23(1),58-67.
高璐,叶茂林,彭坚,陈宇帅.(2016).面孔对领导者有多重要?--领导者的面孔特征研究述评.心理科学,39(4),992-997.
马凤玲,郑婷婷,蔡维香,徐芬.(2014).信任倾向和面孔可信度对小学儿童信任判断的影响.应用心理学,20(3),216-226.
汪亚珉,黄雅梅.(2011).面孔识别中的构形加工与特征加工.心理科学进展,19(8),1126-1137.
温芳芳.(2016).男性化与女性化:面孔吸引力研究.武汉:华中师范大学出版社.
温芳芳,佐斌.(2012).男性化与女性化对面孔偏好的影响--基于图像处理技术和眼动的检验.心理学报,44(1),14-29.
张林,李玥,刘燊,谭群,徐强,杨亚平.(2016).陌生面孔的印象加工:基于面孔特征的视角.心理科学,39(6),1373-1378.
张耀华,朱莉琪.(2012).基于面孔的印象形成:神经科学的视角.心理科学进展,20(7),1031-1039.
郑治国,俞宗火,廖华,刘建平.(2017).能以貌取人吗?面孔宽高比研究述评.心理科学,40(5),1235-1241.
Albright,L.,Malloy,T.E.,Dong,Q.,Kenny,D.A.,Fang,X.Y.,Winquist,L.,&Yu,D.(1997).Cross-cultural consensus in personality judgments.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,72(3),558-569.
Ambady,N.,Hallahan,M.,&Rosenthal,R.(1995).On judging and being judged accurately in zero-acquaintance situations.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,69(3),518-529.
Bernstein,M.J.,Young,S.G.,Brown,C.M.,Sacco,D.F.,&Claypool,H.M.(2008).Adaptive responses to social exclusion:Social rejection improves detection of real and fake smiles.Psychological Science,19(10),981-983.
Biesanz,J.C.(2010).The social accuracy model of interpersonal perception:Assessing individual differences in perceptive and expressive accuracy.Multivariate Behavioral Research,45(5),853-885.
Bjornsdottir,R.T.,&Rule,N.O.(2017).The visibility of social class from facial cues.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,113(4),530-546.
Bond,C.F.,Jr,Berry,D.S.,&Omar,A.(1994).The kernel of truth in judgments of deceptiveness.Basic and Applied Social Psychology,15(4),523-534.
Borkenau,P.,Brecke,S.,M?ttig,C.,&Paelecke,M.(2009).Extraversion is accurately perceived after a 50-ms exposure to a face.Journal of Research in Personality,43(4),703-706.
Brahnam,S.,&Nanni,L.(2010).Predicting trait impressions of faces using local face recognition techniques.Expert Systems with Applications,37(7),5086-5093.
Brown,M.,&Sacco,D.F.(2017).Greater need to belong predicts a stronger preference for extraverted faces.Personality and Individual Differences,104,220-223.
Cooley,E.,Winslow,H.,Vojt,A.,Shein,J.,&Ho,J.(2018).Bias at the intersection of identity:Conflicting social stereotypes of gender and race augment the perceived femininity and interpersonal warmth of smiling Black women.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,74,43-49.
De Neys,W.,Hopfensitz,A.,&Bonnefon,J.F.(2017).Split-second trustworthiness detection from faces in an economic game.Experimental Psychology,64(4),231-239.
Fessler,D.M.,&Holbrook,C.(2013).Bound to lose:Physical incapacitation increases the conceptualized size of an antagonist in men.PLo S ONE,8(8),e71306.
Geniole,S.N.,Denson,T.F.,Dixson,B.J.,Carré,J.M.,&McCormick,C.M.(2015).Evidence from meta-analyses of the facial width-to-height ratio as an evolved cue of threat.PLo S ONE,10(7),e0132726.
Getov,S.,Kanai,R.,Bahrami,B.,&Rees,G.(2015).Human brain structure predicts individual differences in preconscious evaluation of facial dominance and trustworthiness.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,10(5),690-699.
Gill,D.,Garrod,O.G.B.,Jack,R.E.,&Schyns,P.G.(2014).Facial movements strategically camouflage involuntary social signals of face morphology.Psychological Science,25(5),1079-1086.
Gollwitzer,M.,Rothmund,T.,Alt,B.,&Jekel,M.(2012).Victim sensitivity and the accuracy of social judgments.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,38(8),975-984.
Haselhuhn,M.P.,Ormiston,M.E.,&Wong,E.M.(2015).Men’s facial widthto-height ratio predicts aggression:A meta-analysis.PLoS ONE,10(4),e0122637.
Hehman,E.,Flake,J.K.,&Freeman,J.B.(2015).Static and dynamic facial cues differentially affect the consistency of social evaluations.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,41(8),1123-1134.
Jessen,S.,&Grossmann,T.(2016).Neural and behavioral evidence for infants'sensitivity to the trustworthiness of faces.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,28(11),1728-1736.
Kiiski,H.S.M.,Cullen,B.,Clavin,S.L.,&Newell,F.N.(2016).Perceptual and social attributes underlining age-related preferences for faces.Frontiers in Human Neuroscience,10,437.
Klapper,A.,Dotsch,R.,Van,R.I.,&Wigboldus,D.H.(2016).Do we spontaneously form stable trustworthiness impressions from facial appearance?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,111(5),655-664.
Kleider-Offutt,H.M.,Bond,A.D.,&Hegerty,S.E.A.(2017).Black stereotypical features:When a face type can get you in trouble.Current Directions in Psychological Science,26(1),28-33.
Kleisner,K.,Chvátalová,V.,&Flegr,J.(2014).Perceived intelligence is associated with measured intelligence in men but not women.PLo S ONE,9(3),e81237.
Kruglanski,A.W.(1989).The psychology of being"right":The problem of accuracy in social perception and cognition.Psychological Bulletin,106(3),395-409.
Krys,K.,Hansen,K.,Xing,C.,Szarota,P.,&Yang,M.M.(2014).Do only fools smile at strangers?Cultural differences in social perception of intelligence of smiling individuals.Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,45(2),314-321.
Kuraguchi,K.,Taniguchi,K.,&Ashida,H.(2015).The impact of baby schema on perceived attractiveness,beauty,and cuteness in female adults.Springer Plus,4(1),164.
Letzring,T.D.(2015).Observer judgmental accuracy of personality:Benefits related to being a good(normative)judge.Journal of Research in Personality,54,51-60.
Lorenzo,G.L.,Biesanz,J.C.,&Human,L.J.(2010).What is beautiful is good and more accurately understood:Physical attractiveness and accuracy in first impressions of personality.Psychological Science,21(12),1777-1782.
Ma,F.L.,Xu,F.,&Luo,X.M.(2015).Children's and adults'judgments of facial trustworthiness:The relationship to facial attractiveness.Perceptual and Motor Skills,121(1),179-198.
Malatesta,C.Z.,Fiore,M.J.,&Messina,J.J.(1987).Affect,personality,and facial expressive characteristics of older people.Psychology and Aging,2(1),64-69.
Naumann,L.P.,Vazire,S.,Rentfrow,P.J.,&Gosling,S.D.(2009).Personality judgments based on physical appearance.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,35(12),1661-1671.
Nestler,S.,&Back,M.D.(2013).Applications and extensions of the lens model to understand interpersonal judgments at zero acquaintance.Current Directions in Psychological Science,22(5),374-379.
Olivola,C.Y.,Eubanks,D.L.,&Lovelace,J.B.(2014).The many(distinctive)faces of leadership:Inferring leadership domain from facial appearance.The Leadership Quarterly,25(5),817-834.
Oosterhof,N.N.,&Todorov,A.(2008).The functional basis of face evaluation.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,105(32),11087-11092.
Robinson,K.,Blais,C.,Duncan,J.,Forget,H.,&Fiset,D.(2014).The dual nature of the human face:There is a little Jekyll and a little Hyde in all of us.Frontiers in Psychology,5,139.
Rule,N.O.,Krendl,A.C.,Ivcevic,Z.,&Ambady,N.(2013).Accuracy and consensus in judgments of trustworthiness from faces:Behavioral and neural correlates.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,104(3),409-426.
Sutherland,C.A.M.,Young,A.W.,Mootz,C.A.,&Oldmeadow,J.A.(2015).Face gender and stereotypicality influence facial trait evaluation:Counterstereotypical female faces are negatively evaluated.British Journal of Psychology,106(2),186-208.
Sutherland,C.A.M.,Young,A.W.,&Rhodes,G.(2017).Facial first impressions from another angle:How social judgements are influenced by changeable and invariant facial properties.British Journal of Psychology,108(2),397-415.
Talamas,S.N.,Mavor,K.I.,&Perrett,D.I.(2016).Blinded by beauty:Attractiveness bias and accurate perceptions of academic performance.PLoSONE,11(2),e0148284.
Tanner,R.J.,&Maeng,A.(2012).A tiger and a president:Imperceptible celebrity facial cues influence trust and preference.Journal of Consumer Research,39(4),769-783.
Todorov,A.,Baron,S.G.,&Oosterhof,N.N.(2008).Evaluating face trustworthiness:A model based approach.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,3(2),119-127.
Todorov,A.,Olivola,C.Y.,Dotsch,R.,&Mende-Siedlecki,P.(2015).Social attributions from faces:Determinants,consequences,accuracy,and functional significance.Annual Review of Psychology,66(1),519-545.
Todorov,A.,&Porter,J.M.(2014).Misleading first impressions:Different for different facial images of the same person.Psychological Science,25(7),1404-1417.
Verosky,S.C.,&Todorov,A.(2013).When physical similarity matters:Mechanisms underlying affective learning generalization to the evaluation of novel faces.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,49(4),661-669.
Walker,M.,&Vetter,T.(2016).Changing the personality of a face:Perceived Big Two and Big Five personality factors modeled in real photographs.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,110(4),609-624.
Wolffhechel,K.,Fagertun,J.,Jacobsen,U.P.,Majewski,W.,Hemmingsen,A.S.,Larsen,C.L.,et al.(2014).Interpretation of appearance:The effect of facial features on first impressions and personality.PLo S ONE,9(9),e107721.
Zebrowitz,L.A.,&Franklin,R.G.,Jr.(2014).The attractiveness halo effect and the babyface stereotype in older and younger adults:Similarities,own-age accentuation,and older adult positivity effects.Experimental Aging Research,40(3),375-393.
Zebrowitz,L.A.,&Rhodes,G.(2004).Sensitivity to“Bad Genes”and the anomalous face overgeneralization effect:Cue validity,cue utilization,and accuracy in judging intelligence and health.Journal of Nonverbal Behavior,28(3),167-185.
Zheng,W.W.,Yang,Q.,Peng,K.P.,&Yu,F.(2016).What's in the Chinese babyface?Cultural differences in understanding the babyface.Frontiers in Psychology,7,819.
高璐,叶茂林,彭坚,陈宇帅.(2016).面孔对领导者有多重要?--领导者的面孔特征研究述评.心理科学,39(4),992-997.
马凤玲,郑婷婷,蔡维香,徐芬.(2014).信任倾向和面孔可信度对小学儿童信任判断的影响.应用心理学,20(3),216-226.
汪亚珉,黄雅梅.(2011).面孔识别中的构形加工与特征加工.心理科学进展,19(8),1126-1137.
温芳芳.(2016).男性化与女性化:面孔吸引力研究.武汉:华中师范大学出版社.
温芳芳,佐斌.(2012).男性化与女性化对面孔偏好的影响--基于图像处理技术和眼动的检验.心理学报,44(1),14-29.
张林,李玥,刘燊,谭群,徐强,杨亚平.(2016).陌生面孔的印象加工:基于面孔特征的视角.心理科学,39(6),1373-1378.
张耀华,朱莉琪.(2012).基于面孔的印象形成:神经科学的视角.心理科学进展,20(7),1031-1039.
郑治国,俞宗火,廖华,刘建平.(2017).能以貌取人吗?面孔宽高比研究述评.心理科学,40(5),1235-1241.
Albright,L.,Malloy,T.E.,Dong,Q.,Kenny,D.A.,Fang,X.Y.,Winquist,L.,&Yu,D.(1997).Cross-cultural consensus in personality judgments.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,72(3),558-569.
Ambady,N.,Hallahan,M.,&Rosenthal,R.(1995).On judging and being judged accurately in zero-acquaintance situations.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,69(3),518-529.
Bernstein,M.J.,Young,S.G.,Brown,C.M.,Sacco,D.F.,&Claypool,H.M.(2008).Adaptive responses to social exclusion:Social rejection improves detection of real and fake smiles.Psychological Science,19(10),981-983.
Biesanz,J.C.(2010).The social accuracy model of interpersonal perception:Assessing individual differences in perceptive and expressive accuracy.Multivariate Behavioral Research,45(5),853-885.
Bjornsdottir,R.T.,&Rule,N.O.(2017).The visibility of social class from facial cues.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,113(4),530-546.
Bond,C.F.,Jr,Berry,D.S.,&Omar,A.(1994).The kernel of truth in judgments of deceptiveness.Basic and Applied Social Psychology,15(4),523-534.
Borkenau,P.,Brecke,S.,M?ttig,C.,&Paelecke,M.(2009).Extraversion is accurately perceived after a 50-ms exposure to a face.Journal of Research in Personality,43(4),703-706.
Brahnam,S.,&Nanni,L.(2010).Predicting trait impressions of faces using local face recognition techniques.Expert Systems with Applications,37(7),5086-5093.
Brown,M.,&Sacco,D.F.(2017).Greater need to belong predicts a stronger preference for extraverted faces.Personality and Individual Differences,104,220-223.
Cooley,E.,Winslow,H.,Vojt,A.,Shein,J.,&Ho,J.(2018).Bias at the intersection of identity:Conflicting social stereotypes of gender and race augment the perceived femininity and interpersonal warmth of smiling Black women.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,74,43-49.
De Neys,W.,Hopfensitz,A.,&Bonnefon,J.F.(2017).Split-second trustworthiness detection from faces in an economic game.Experimental Psychology,64(4),231-239.
Fessler,D.M.,&Holbrook,C.(2013).Bound to lose:Physical incapacitation increases the conceptualized size of an antagonist in men.PLo S ONE,8(8),e71306.
Geniole,S.N.,Denson,T.F.,Dixson,B.J.,Carré,J.M.,&McCormick,C.M.(2015).Evidence from meta-analyses of the facial width-to-height ratio as an evolved cue of threat.PLo S ONE,10(7),e0132726.
Getov,S.,Kanai,R.,Bahrami,B.,&Rees,G.(2015).Human brain structure predicts individual differences in preconscious evaluation of facial dominance and trustworthiness.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,10(5),690-699.
Gill,D.,Garrod,O.G.B.,Jack,R.E.,&Schyns,P.G.(2014).Facial movements strategically camouflage involuntary social signals of face morphology.Psychological Science,25(5),1079-1086.
Gollwitzer,M.,Rothmund,T.,Alt,B.,&Jekel,M.(2012).Victim sensitivity and the accuracy of social judgments.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,38(8),975-984.
Haselhuhn,M.P.,Ormiston,M.E.,&Wong,E.M.(2015).Men’s facial widthto-height ratio predicts aggression:A meta-analysis.PLoS ONE,10(4),e0122637.
Hehman,E.,Flake,J.K.,&Freeman,J.B.(2015).Static and dynamic facial cues differentially affect the consistency of social evaluations.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,41(8),1123-1134.
Jessen,S.,&Grossmann,T.(2016).Neural and behavioral evidence for infants'sensitivity to the trustworthiness of faces.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,28(11),1728-1736.
Kiiski,H.S.M.,Cullen,B.,Clavin,S.L.,&Newell,F.N.(2016).Perceptual and social attributes underlining age-related preferences for faces.Frontiers in Human Neuroscience,10,437.
Klapper,A.,Dotsch,R.,Van,R.I.,&Wigboldus,D.H.(2016).Do we spontaneously form stable trustworthiness impressions from facial appearance?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,111(5),655-664.
Kleider-Offutt,H.M.,Bond,A.D.,&Hegerty,S.E.A.(2017).Black stereotypical features:When a face type can get you in trouble.Current Directions in Psychological Science,26(1),28-33.
Kleisner,K.,Chvátalová,V.,&Flegr,J.(2014).Perceived intelligence is associated with measured intelligence in men but not women.PLo S ONE,9(3),e81237.
Kruglanski,A.W.(1989).The psychology of being"right":The problem of accuracy in social perception and cognition.Psychological Bulletin,106(3),395-409.
Krys,K.,Hansen,K.,Xing,C.,Szarota,P.,&Yang,M.M.(2014).Do only fools smile at strangers?Cultural differences in social perception of intelligence of smiling individuals.Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,45(2),314-321.
Kuraguchi,K.,Taniguchi,K.,&Ashida,H.(2015).The impact of baby schema on perceived attractiveness,beauty,and cuteness in female adults.Springer Plus,4(1),164.
Letzring,T.D.(2015).Observer judgmental accuracy of personality:Benefits related to being a good(normative)judge.Journal of Research in Personality,54,51-60.
Lorenzo,G.L.,Biesanz,J.C.,&Human,L.J.(2010).What is beautiful is good and more accurately understood:Physical attractiveness and accuracy in first impressions of personality.Psychological Science,21(12),1777-1782.
Ma,F.L.,Xu,F.,&Luo,X.M.(2015).Children's and adults'judgments of facial trustworthiness:The relationship to facial attractiveness.Perceptual and Motor Skills,121(1),179-198.
Malatesta,C.Z.,Fiore,M.J.,&Messina,J.J.(1987).Affect,personality,and facial expressive characteristics of older people.Psychology and Aging,2(1),64-69.
Naumann,L.P.,Vazire,S.,Rentfrow,P.J.,&Gosling,S.D.(2009).Personality judgments based on physical appearance.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,35(12),1661-1671.
Nestler,S.,&Back,M.D.(2013).Applications and extensions of the lens model to understand interpersonal judgments at zero acquaintance.Current Directions in Psychological Science,22(5),374-379.
Olivola,C.Y.,Eubanks,D.L.,&Lovelace,J.B.(2014).The many(distinctive)faces of leadership:Inferring leadership domain from facial appearance.The Leadership Quarterly,25(5),817-834.
Oosterhof,N.N.,&Todorov,A.(2008).The functional basis of face evaluation.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,105(32),11087-11092.
Robinson,K.,Blais,C.,Duncan,J.,Forget,H.,&Fiset,D.(2014).The dual nature of the human face:There is a little Jekyll and a little Hyde in all of us.Frontiers in Psychology,5,139.
Rule,N.O.,Krendl,A.C.,Ivcevic,Z.,&Ambady,N.(2013).Accuracy and consensus in judgments of trustworthiness from faces:Behavioral and neural correlates.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,104(3),409-426.
Sutherland,C.A.M.,Young,A.W.,Mootz,C.A.,&Oldmeadow,J.A.(2015).Face gender and stereotypicality influence facial trait evaluation:Counterstereotypical female faces are negatively evaluated.British Journal of Psychology,106(2),186-208.
Sutherland,C.A.M.,Young,A.W.,&Rhodes,G.(2017).Facial first impressions from another angle:How social judgements are influenced by changeable and invariant facial properties.British Journal of Psychology,108(2),397-415.
Talamas,S.N.,Mavor,K.I.,&Perrett,D.I.(2016).Blinded by beauty:Attractiveness bias and accurate perceptions of academic performance.PLoSONE,11(2),e0148284.
Tanner,R.J.,&Maeng,A.(2012).A tiger and a president:Imperceptible celebrity facial cues influence trust and preference.Journal of Consumer Research,39(4),769-783.
Todorov,A.,Baron,S.G.,&Oosterhof,N.N.(2008).Evaluating face trustworthiness:A model based approach.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,3(2),119-127.
Todorov,A.,Olivola,C.Y.,Dotsch,R.,&Mende-Siedlecki,P.(2015).Social attributions from faces:Determinants,consequences,accuracy,and functional significance.Annual Review of Psychology,66(1),519-545.
Todorov,A.,&Porter,J.M.(2014).Misleading first impressions:Different for different facial images of the same person.Psychological Science,25(7),1404-1417.
Verosky,S.C.,&Todorov,A.(2013).When physical similarity matters:Mechanisms underlying affective learning generalization to the evaluation of novel faces.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,49(4),661-669.
Walker,M.,&Vetter,T.(2016).Changing the personality of a face:Perceived Big Two and Big Five personality factors modeled in real photographs.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,110(4),609-624.
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