Special materials in pyrotechnics Ⅶ: Pyrotechnics used in thermal batteries
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摘要
Thermal batteries are unique direct current(DC) electrical power sources with long shelf live, high reliability and higher power density than classical alkaline batteries. This paper gives a brief overview into the working principle of thermal batteries and reviews the properties of zirconium/barium chromate(Zr/BaCrO_4) pyrolant previously used as first fire and iron/potassium perchlorate(Fe/KClO_4) pyrolant(Heat), commonly applied as heating pellet in thermal batteries and its hazard properties. The review gives 64 references to the public domain. CAS-Nos. Zr: [7440-67-7], BaCrO_4: [10294-40-3], Fe: [7439-89-6], KClO_4: [7778-74-7], Viton: [9011-17-0].CAS-Nos. Zr: [7440-67-7], BaCrO_4: [10294-40-3], Fe: [7439-89-6], KClO_4: [7778-74-7], Viton: [9011-17-0].
Thermal batteries are unique direct current(DC) electrical power sources with long shelf live, high reliability and higher power density than classical alkaline batteries. This paper gives a brief overview into the working principle of thermal batteries and reviews the properties of zirconium/barium chromate(Zr/BaCrO_4) pyrolant previously used as first fire and iron/potassium perchlorate(Fe/KClO_4) pyrolant(Heat), commonly applied as heating pellet in thermal batteries and its hazard properties. The review gives 64 references to the public domain. CAS-Nos. Zr: [7440-67-7], BaCrO_4: [10294-40-3], Fe: [7439-89-6], KClO_4: [7778-74-7], Viton: [9011-17-0].CAS-Nos. Zr: [7440-67-7], BaCrO_4: [10294-40-3], Fe: [7439-89-6], KClO_4: [7778-74-7], Viton: [9011-17-0].
Thermal batteries are unique direct current(DC) electrical power sources with long shelf live, high reliability and higher power density than classical alkaline batteries. This paper gives a brief overview into the working principle of thermal batteries and reviews the properties of zirconium/barium chromate(Zr/BaCrO_4) pyrolant previously used as first fire and iron/potassium perchlorate(Fe/KClO_4) pyrolant(Heat), commonly applied as heating pellet in thermal batteries and its hazard properties. The review gives 64 references to the public domain. CAS-Nos. Zr: [7440-67-7], BaCrO_4: [10294-40-3], Fe: [7439-89-6], KClO_4: [7778-74-7], Viton: [9011-17-0].CAS-Nos. Zr: [7440-67-7], BaCrO_4: [10294-40-3], Fe: [7439-89-6], KClO_4: [7778-74-7], Viton: [9011-17-0].
引文
[1]Koch E-C.Special materials in pyrotechnics:V.Military applications of phosphorus and its compounds.Propellants Explos Pyrotech 2008;33:165e76.
[2]Koch E-C,Clement D.Special materials in pyrotechnics:VI.Silicon-an old fuel with new perspectives.Propellants,Explos Pyrotech 2007;32:205e12.
[3]Guidotti RA,Masset P.Thermally activated("thermal")battery technology Part I:an overview.J Power Sources 2006;161:1443e9.
[4]Dekel DR,Taubenfeld Z,Melchior S.Thermal battery activation by direct ignition of pyrotechnic pellets.Fort Collins,CO,USA:31stInternational Pyrotechnics Seminar;2004.p.137e44.
[5]Ritchie AG.Molten salt electrolytes in high temperature batteries,M&S 1155.Farnborough,UK:Royal Aerospace Establishment;1990.
[6]Dallek S,Ernst DW,Larrick BF.Lithium eboron alloy anodes for molten salt batteries,NSWC/WOL TR 77-67.Dahlgren,VA,USA:Naval Surface Warfare Center;1977.
[7]Guidotti RA,Masset PJ.Thermally activated(“thermal”)battery technology:Part IV:anode materials.Power Sources 2008;183:388e98.
[8]Krieger FC.Thermal battery systems for ordnance fuzing,DL-TR-1089.Adelphi,USA,H:US Army Electronics Research and Development Command,Harry Diamond Laboratories;1982.
[9]Masset P.Thermal stability of FeS2cathode material in“thermal”batteries:effect of dissolved oxides in molten salt electrolytes.Z Naturforsch 2008;63a:596e602.
[10]Masset PJ,Guidotti RA.Thermally activated(“thermal”)battery technology:Part IIIa:FeS2cathode material.Power Sources 2007;177:595e609.
[11]Guidotti RA,Reinhardt FW.Evaluation of the Li(Si)/FeS2and Li(Si)/CoS2couples for a high-voltage,high-power thermal battery,SAND2000-1408.Albuquerque,NM,USA:Sandia National Laboratories;2000.
[12]Masset PJ,Guidotti RA.Thermally activated(“thermal”)battery technology:Part IIIb:sulfur and oxide-based cathode materials.Power Sources 2007;178:456e66.
[13]Pearce CI,Pattrick RAD,Vaughan DJ.Electrical and magnetic properties of sulfides.Rev Mineral Geochem 2006;61:127e80.
[14]Payne JL,Percival JD,Giagloglou K,Crouch CJ,Carins GM,Smith RI,Comrie R,Gover RKB,Irvine JTS.In-situ thermal battery discharge using NiS2as a cathode material.ChemElectroChem 2017;4:1916e23.
[15]Masset PJ,Guidotti RA.Thermal activated(thermal)battery technology:Part II:molten salt electrolytes.Power Sources 2007;164:397e414.
[16]Melendres CA,Sy CC,Tani B.Anodic sulfidation of iron in molten LiCl-KCl.J Electrochem Soc 1977;124:1060e3.
[17]Lore JD.Electrical conductivity measurements of molten-salt fluxes from an electroslag remelting process,report Y-1947,Oak ridge Y-12 plant,TN,USA.1974.p.19.
[18]Van Artsdalen ER,Yaffe IS.Electrical conductance and density of molten-saltsystems,KCl-LiCl,KCl-NaCl,KCl-KI.J Phys Chem 1955;59:118e27.
[19]Guidotti RA,Preston S.Electrode fabrication processes for thermal batteries,AIAA 2007-4706.In:5th international energy conversion engineering conference,Str Louis,MS,USA;2007.
[20]Sheptunopv VN.Heat generating compositions for thermal batteries.Elektrotekh Prom St Khim Fiz Istochniki Toka 1983;5:16e9.
[21]Almada GF,Vieira MJP,Rupp MTC,Ponzio EA.Baterias termicas:revisao.Rev Virtual Quim 2013;5:563e95.
[22]Mosier-Boss PA,Szpak S.Electrochemical systems with high power density.An overview,technical document 1715.San Diego,CA,USA:Naval Ocean Systems Center;1989.
[23]Fischbach,A.,Teti,J.E.(1974),Improvements in or relating to thermal batteries(filed 4 March 1957),GB Patent 1 346 565,USA.
[24]Ellern H.Military and civilian pyrotechnics.New York:Chemical Publishing Company;1968.p.282e3.
[25]Guidotti R.Development history of Fe/KClO4heat powders at sandia and related aging issues for thermal batteries,SAND2001-2191.Albuquerque,NM,USA:Sandia National Laboratories;2001.
[26]Sabatini JJ.Green pyrotechnics.In:Brinck T,editor.Green energetic materials.New York:John Wiley;2013.p.63e101.
[27]Jolicoeur,B.,Palardy,M.(2018),Tungsten Oxide Primer Composition,USPatent Appl.20180258007A1,USA.
[28]Nol€ang B.EKVI-code,version 4.6.1.Uppsalla,Sweden:BeN-Systems;2016.
[29]Czajka B,Styczynski S,Tabat S,Szal D.Determination of ignition sensitivity of selected heat powders.Centr Eur J Energ Mater 2011;8:3e13.
[30]Kuwahara T,Kohno T,Wang CH.Static electric sensitivity characteristics of Zr/BaCrO4pyrolants.Propellants,Explos Pyrotech 2004;29:56e61.
[31]Berger B.Bestimmung der Abbrandcharakteristik sowie der Sicherheitskenndaten verschiedener binaerer pyrotechnischer Anzünd-und Verz€ogerungssysteme.In:Annual ICT conference,Karlsruhe,V-72;1986.
[32]Kuwahara T,Kohno T,Wang CH.Coating effect to burning rate and sensitivity characteristics of Zr/BaCrO4pyrolants,AIAA 2002-3747.In:38th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE joint propulsion conference&exhibit,7-10 July 2002,Indianapolis,IN,USA;2002.
[33]Daniel R,Sarawadekar RG.Pyrotechnic compositions of zirconium and chromates of alkaline earth metals.In:International annual conference of ICT,Karlsruhe,Germany,V-48;1995.
[34]Douda BE.Genesis of infrared decoy flares e The early years from 1950 into the1970s,NSWCCR/RDTR-08/63.IN,USA:NSWC-Crane,Crane;2009.p.184.
[35]Rittenhouse CT.Final report on the development of pelletized heat sources for thermal batteries,SC-CR-70-6137.AZ,USA:Unidynamics Phoenix,Inc;1970.
[36]Guidotti RA,Odinek J,Reinhardt FW.Characterization of Fe/KClO4 heat powders for thermal batteries.In:29th international pyrotechnics seminar,July Westminster,CO,USA;2002.p.847.
[37]Chong J,Xun S,Battaglia VS.Insight into iron heat-powder combustion products for thermal batteries:core-shell structure and semiconductive properties.Electrochem Solid-State Lett 2011;14:A123e5.
[38]Welbon,W.W.(1983),Process for the Synthesis of Iron Powder,US Patent 4414 021,USA.
[39]McCarthy DK,Leslie WB,Dietzel RW.Burn front velocity as A function of pellet density in iron/potassium perchlorate heat powders,SAND83-1025.Albuquerque,NM,USA:Sandia National Laboratories;1985.
[40]Guidotti RA,Odinek J,Reinhardt FW.Characterization of Fe/KClO4heat powders and pellets.J Energ Mater 2006;24:271e305.
[41]Callaway J,Davies N,Stringer M.Pyrotechnic heater compositions for use in thermal batteries.Adelaide,Australia:International Pyrotechnics Seminar;2001.p.153.
[42]Kim JH,Koo HY,Hong SK,Han JM,Jang HC,Ko YN,Hong YJ,Kang YC,Kang SH,Cho SB.Combustion characteristics of the heat pellet prepared from the Fe powders obtained by spray pyrolysis.Adv Powd Tech 2012;23:387e92.
[43]Alkan A,Koyuncu T,Can M,Teksen T,Yesilirmakünsal E,G€ocmez A.Determination of kinetic parameters for Fe/KClO4pellets used in thermal batteries.In:48th power sources conference,Denver,CO,June 11-14,2018;2018.p.165e8.
[44]Reinholz EL,Wesolowski DE.Manufacturing and temperature effects on heat pellet ignition sensitivity.Albuquerque,NM.USA:SAND2014-2938C Sandia National Laboratory;2014.p.4.
[45]Evans NA.Pyrotechnic ignition studies using a gun tunnel.In:14thinternational pyrotechnics seminar,Jersey,UK;1989.p.112.
[46]Opdebeck F,Gillard P,Radenac d’E.Influence of interface conditions on laser diode ignition of pyrotechnic mixtures:application to the design of an ignition device.Int J Therm Sci 2003;42:47e56.
[47]Koyuncu T,Alkan A,Sevim K,Yesilirmakünsal E,G€ocmez A.Modeling of pyrotechnic combustion behavior and temperature distribution for the ignition phase of thermal batteries.In:48th power sources conference,Denver,CO,June 11-14,2018;2018.p.428e31.
[48]Czajka B,Tabat S,Stycczynski Wachowski L,Zielinski M,Pietrowski M.Physicochemical properties of iron powders used as reducing agents in materials of high calorific value.Cent Eur J Energetic Mater 2004;1:75e88.
[49]Czajka B,Wachowski L.Some thermochemical properties of high-calorific mixture of Fe-KClO4.Cent Eur J Energetic Mater 2005;2:55e68.
[50]Czajka B,Wachowski L.Activator-induced modification of selected properties of heat generating Fe-KClO4mixture.Cent Eur J Energetic Mater 2006;3:51e63.
[51]Czajka B,Wachowski L,Lapinski A,Rzodkiewicz W.Modification of the surface of the iron powder as an ingredient of the high-calorific mixture.Cent Eur J Energetic Mater 2008;5:87e102.
[52]Czajka B,Wachowski L,Stycczynski S,Tabat S,Szal D.Determination of ignition sensitivity of selected heat powders.Cent Eur J Energetic Mater2011;8:3e13.
[53]Wachowski L,Czajka B.Textural and catalytic properties of the FexOy/FeKClO4system.Thermochim Acta 2001;435:102e7.
[54]Callaway J.Expandable infrared radiating means,GB 2387430,United Kingdom.2003.
[55]N.N.Hazard classification of U.S.Military explosives and munitions,revision17.McAlester,OK,USA:U.S.Army Defense Ammunition Center,U.S.Army Technical Center for Explosives Safety;2017.256 pp.
[56]Nissen M,Guidotti RA,Berry B.Combustion of bulk 84%Fe/16%KClO4heat powder,report SAND-96-0861C.Albuquerque,NM:Sandia National Laboratories;1995.4 pp.
[57]Dow J,Batchelor C.Navy lithium battery safety.In:Department of Defense explosives safety board seminar(34th)held in portland,Oregon on 13-15 July2010;2010.31 pp.
[58]Diem MH.Hazardous waste study,evaluation of thermal batteries for hazardous waste characteristics.,MD,USA:U.S.Army Environmental Hygiene Agency,Aberdeen Proving Ground;1980.11 pp.
[59]NATO Standardization Agency.Policy for the introduction and assessment of insensitive munitions(IM),STANAG 4439 JAIS.third ed.2010[Brussels,Belgium].
[60]Leventis N,Donthula S,Mandal C,Ding MS,Sotirou-Leventis C.Explosive versus thermite behavior in iron(0)aerogels infiltrated with perchlorates.Chem Matter 2015;27:8126e37.
[61]Wilharm CK,Chin A,Pliskin S.Thermochemical calculations for potassium ferrate(VI),K2FeO4,as a green oxidizer in pyrotechnic formulations.Propellants,Explos Pyrotech 2013;39:173e9.
[62]Chin,A.,Pliskin,S.,Wilharm,C.K.(2015),Ferrate Based Pyrotechnic Formulations,US Patent 020150376079A1,USA.
[63]Prentice,J.L.(1979),Heat Sources for Thermal Batteries:Exothermic Intermetallic Reactions,US Patent 4 158 084.
[64]Poret JC,Ding M,Krieger F,Swank J,Chen G,McMullan C.Nanofoil heating elements for thermal batteries.In:Proceedings of the army science conference(26th)held in Orlando,FL,USA,1-4 December 2008;2008.6 pp.
[2]Koch E-C,Clement D.Special materials in pyrotechnics:VI.Silicon-an old fuel with new perspectives.Propellants,Explos Pyrotech 2007;32:205e12.
[3]Guidotti RA,Masset P.Thermally activated("thermal")battery technology Part I:an overview.J Power Sources 2006;161:1443e9.
[4]Dekel DR,Taubenfeld Z,Melchior S.Thermal battery activation by direct ignition of pyrotechnic pellets.Fort Collins,CO,USA:31stInternational Pyrotechnics Seminar;2004.p.137e44.
[5]Ritchie AG.Molten salt electrolytes in high temperature batteries,M&S 1155.Farnborough,UK:Royal Aerospace Establishment;1990.
[6]Dallek S,Ernst DW,Larrick BF.Lithium eboron alloy anodes for molten salt batteries,NSWC/WOL TR 77-67.Dahlgren,VA,USA:Naval Surface Warfare Center;1977.
[7]Guidotti RA,Masset PJ.Thermally activated(“thermal”)battery technology:Part IV:anode materials.Power Sources 2008;183:388e98.
[8]Krieger FC.Thermal battery systems for ordnance fuzing,DL-TR-1089.Adelphi,USA,H:US Army Electronics Research and Development Command,Harry Diamond Laboratories;1982.
[9]Masset P.Thermal stability of FeS2cathode material in“thermal”batteries:effect of dissolved oxides in molten salt electrolytes.Z Naturforsch 2008;63a:596e602.
[10]Masset PJ,Guidotti RA.Thermally activated(“thermal”)battery technology:Part IIIa:FeS2cathode material.Power Sources 2007;177:595e609.
[11]Guidotti RA,Reinhardt FW.Evaluation of the Li(Si)/FeS2and Li(Si)/CoS2couples for a high-voltage,high-power thermal battery,SAND2000-1408.Albuquerque,NM,USA:Sandia National Laboratories;2000.
[12]Masset PJ,Guidotti RA.Thermally activated(“thermal”)battery technology:Part IIIb:sulfur and oxide-based cathode materials.Power Sources 2007;178:456e66.
[13]Pearce CI,Pattrick RAD,Vaughan DJ.Electrical and magnetic properties of sulfides.Rev Mineral Geochem 2006;61:127e80.
[14]Payne JL,Percival JD,Giagloglou K,Crouch CJ,Carins GM,Smith RI,Comrie R,Gover RKB,Irvine JTS.In-situ thermal battery discharge using NiS2as a cathode material.ChemElectroChem 2017;4:1916e23.
[15]Masset PJ,Guidotti RA.Thermal activated(thermal)battery technology:Part II:molten salt electrolytes.Power Sources 2007;164:397e414.
[16]Melendres CA,Sy CC,Tani B.Anodic sulfidation of iron in molten LiCl-KCl.J Electrochem Soc 1977;124:1060e3.
[17]Lore JD.Electrical conductivity measurements of molten-salt fluxes from an electroslag remelting process,report Y-1947,Oak ridge Y-12 plant,TN,USA.1974.p.19.
[18]Van Artsdalen ER,Yaffe IS.Electrical conductance and density of molten-saltsystems,KCl-LiCl,KCl-NaCl,KCl-KI.J Phys Chem 1955;59:118e27.
[19]Guidotti RA,Preston S.Electrode fabrication processes for thermal batteries,AIAA 2007-4706.In:5th international energy conversion engineering conference,Str Louis,MS,USA;2007.
[20]Sheptunopv VN.Heat generating compositions for thermal batteries.Elektrotekh Prom St Khim Fiz Istochniki Toka 1983;5:16e9.
[21]Almada GF,Vieira MJP,Rupp MTC,Ponzio EA.Baterias termicas:revisao.Rev Virtual Quim 2013;5:563e95.
[22]Mosier-Boss PA,Szpak S.Electrochemical systems with high power density.An overview,technical document 1715.San Diego,CA,USA:Naval Ocean Systems Center;1989.
[23]Fischbach,A.,Teti,J.E.(1974),Improvements in or relating to thermal batteries(filed 4 March 1957),GB Patent 1 346 565,USA.
[24]Ellern H.Military and civilian pyrotechnics.New York:Chemical Publishing Company;1968.p.282e3.
[25]Guidotti R.Development history of Fe/KClO4heat powders at sandia and related aging issues for thermal batteries,SAND2001-2191.Albuquerque,NM,USA:Sandia National Laboratories;2001.
[26]Sabatini JJ.Green pyrotechnics.In:Brinck T,editor.Green energetic materials.New York:John Wiley;2013.p.63e101.
[27]Jolicoeur,B.,Palardy,M.(2018),Tungsten Oxide Primer Composition,USPatent Appl.20180258007A1,USA.
[28]Nol€ang B.EKVI-code,version 4.6.1.Uppsalla,Sweden:BeN-Systems;2016.
[29]Czajka B,Styczynski S,Tabat S,Szal D.Determination of ignition sensitivity of selected heat powders.Centr Eur J Energ Mater 2011;8:3e13.
[30]Kuwahara T,Kohno T,Wang CH.Static electric sensitivity characteristics of Zr/BaCrO4pyrolants.Propellants,Explos Pyrotech 2004;29:56e61.
[31]Berger B.Bestimmung der Abbrandcharakteristik sowie der Sicherheitskenndaten verschiedener binaerer pyrotechnischer Anzünd-und Verz€ogerungssysteme.In:Annual ICT conference,Karlsruhe,V-72;1986.
[32]Kuwahara T,Kohno T,Wang CH.Coating effect to burning rate and sensitivity characteristics of Zr/BaCrO4pyrolants,AIAA 2002-3747.In:38th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE joint propulsion conference&exhibit,7-10 July 2002,Indianapolis,IN,USA;2002.
[33]Daniel R,Sarawadekar RG.Pyrotechnic compositions of zirconium and chromates of alkaline earth metals.In:International annual conference of ICT,Karlsruhe,Germany,V-48;1995.
[34]Douda BE.Genesis of infrared decoy flares e The early years from 1950 into the1970s,NSWCCR/RDTR-08/63.IN,USA:NSWC-Crane,Crane;2009.p.184.
[35]Rittenhouse CT.Final report on the development of pelletized heat sources for thermal batteries,SC-CR-70-6137.AZ,USA:Unidynamics Phoenix,Inc;1970.
[36]Guidotti RA,Odinek J,Reinhardt FW.Characterization of Fe/KClO4 heat powders for thermal batteries.In:29th international pyrotechnics seminar,July Westminster,CO,USA;2002.p.847.
[37]Chong J,Xun S,Battaglia VS.Insight into iron heat-powder combustion products for thermal batteries:core-shell structure and semiconductive properties.Electrochem Solid-State Lett 2011;14:A123e5.
[38]Welbon,W.W.(1983),Process for the Synthesis of Iron Powder,US Patent 4414 021,USA.
[39]McCarthy DK,Leslie WB,Dietzel RW.Burn front velocity as A function of pellet density in iron/potassium perchlorate heat powders,SAND83-1025.Albuquerque,NM,USA:Sandia National Laboratories;1985.
[40]Guidotti RA,Odinek J,Reinhardt FW.Characterization of Fe/KClO4heat powders and pellets.J Energ Mater 2006;24:271e305.
[41]Callaway J,Davies N,Stringer M.Pyrotechnic heater compositions for use in thermal batteries.Adelaide,Australia:International Pyrotechnics Seminar;2001.p.153.
[42]Kim JH,Koo HY,Hong SK,Han JM,Jang HC,Ko YN,Hong YJ,Kang YC,Kang SH,Cho SB.Combustion characteristics of the heat pellet prepared from the Fe powders obtained by spray pyrolysis.Adv Powd Tech 2012;23:387e92.
[43]Alkan A,Koyuncu T,Can M,Teksen T,Yesilirmakünsal E,G€ocmez A.Determination of kinetic parameters for Fe/KClO4pellets used in thermal batteries.In:48th power sources conference,Denver,CO,June 11-14,2018;2018.p.165e8.
[44]Reinholz EL,Wesolowski DE.Manufacturing and temperature effects on heat pellet ignition sensitivity.Albuquerque,NM.USA:SAND2014-2938C Sandia National Laboratory;2014.p.4.
[45]Evans NA.Pyrotechnic ignition studies using a gun tunnel.In:14thinternational pyrotechnics seminar,Jersey,UK;1989.p.112.
[46]Opdebeck F,Gillard P,Radenac d’E.Influence of interface conditions on laser diode ignition of pyrotechnic mixtures:application to the design of an ignition device.Int J Therm Sci 2003;42:47e56.
[47]Koyuncu T,Alkan A,Sevim K,Yesilirmakünsal E,G€ocmez A.Modeling of pyrotechnic combustion behavior and temperature distribution for the ignition phase of thermal batteries.In:48th power sources conference,Denver,CO,June 11-14,2018;2018.p.428e31.
[48]Czajka B,Tabat S,Stycczynski Wachowski L,Zielinski M,Pietrowski M.Physicochemical properties of iron powders used as reducing agents in materials of high calorific value.Cent Eur J Energetic Mater 2004;1:75e88.
[49]Czajka B,Wachowski L.Some thermochemical properties of high-calorific mixture of Fe-KClO4.Cent Eur J Energetic Mater 2005;2:55e68.
[50]Czajka B,Wachowski L.Activator-induced modification of selected properties of heat generating Fe-KClO4mixture.Cent Eur J Energetic Mater 2006;3:51e63.
[51]Czajka B,Wachowski L,Lapinski A,Rzodkiewicz W.Modification of the surface of the iron powder as an ingredient of the high-calorific mixture.Cent Eur J Energetic Mater 2008;5:87e102.
[52]Czajka B,Wachowski L,Stycczynski S,Tabat S,Szal D.Determination of ignition sensitivity of selected heat powders.Cent Eur J Energetic Mater2011;8:3e13.
[53]Wachowski L,Czajka B.Textural and catalytic properties of the FexOy/FeKClO4system.Thermochim Acta 2001;435:102e7.
[54]Callaway J.Expandable infrared radiating means,GB 2387430,United Kingdom.2003.
[55]N.N.Hazard classification of U.S.Military explosives and munitions,revision17.McAlester,OK,USA:U.S.Army Defense Ammunition Center,U.S.Army Technical Center for Explosives Safety;2017.256 pp.
[56]Nissen M,Guidotti RA,Berry B.Combustion of bulk 84%Fe/16%KClO4heat powder,report SAND-96-0861C.Albuquerque,NM:Sandia National Laboratories;1995.4 pp.
[57]Dow J,Batchelor C.Navy lithium battery safety.In:Department of Defense explosives safety board seminar(34th)held in portland,Oregon on 13-15 July2010;2010.31 pp.
[58]Diem MH.Hazardous waste study,evaluation of thermal batteries for hazardous waste characteristics.,MD,USA:U.S.Army Environmental Hygiene Agency,Aberdeen Proving Ground;1980.11 pp.
[59]NATO Standardization Agency.Policy for the introduction and assessment of insensitive munitions(IM),STANAG 4439 JAIS.third ed.2010[Brussels,Belgium].
[60]Leventis N,Donthula S,Mandal C,Ding MS,Sotirou-Leventis C.Explosive versus thermite behavior in iron(0)aerogels infiltrated with perchlorates.Chem Matter 2015;27:8126e37.
[61]Wilharm CK,Chin A,Pliskin S.Thermochemical calculations for potassium ferrate(VI),K2FeO4,as a green oxidizer in pyrotechnic formulations.Propellants,Explos Pyrotech 2013;39:173e9.
[62]Chin,A.,Pliskin,S.,Wilharm,C.K.(2015),Ferrate Based Pyrotechnic Formulations,US Patent 020150376079A1,USA.
[63]Prentice,J.L.(1979),Heat Sources for Thermal Batteries:Exothermic Intermetallic Reactions,US Patent 4 158 084.
[64]Poret JC,Ding M,Krieger F,Swank J,Chen G,McMullan C.Nanofoil heating elements for thermal batteries.In:Proceedings of the army science conference(26th)held in Orlando,FL,USA,1-4 December 2008;2008.6 pp.