Electroconvulsive therapy:80 years old and still going strong
|
摘要
Electroconvulsive therapy(ECT),which is among the oldest and most controversial treatments in the field of psychiatry,has its 80 th birthday this year.In this brief historical overview,the discovery of the therapeutic effects of convulsive therapy by Laszló Meduna,and the circumstances that motivated Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini to use electricity as a means of seizure induction are described.Meduna's original theory about the antagonism between epilepsy and schizophrenia has been replaced by hypotheses on the mechanism of action of ECT.The position of ECT in modern psychiatry is also discussed with special attention to its most important clinical indications,including catatonia,and preand postpartum affective and psychotic states that are responsive to ECT and in which ECT may even be lifesaving.Adverse effects and comparison of ECT with recently developed brain stimulation methods are also reviewed.The negative media portrayal of ECT and its earlier misuse may have contributed to its negative professional and public perceptions indicated repeatedly in attitude surveys.This negative attitude has played an important role in the decreasing use of ECT in the developed world and a reduction in access to ECT,which constitutes a violation of psychiatric patients' right to an effective treatment.
Electroconvulsive therapy(ECT),which is among the oldest and most controversial treatments in the field of psychiatry,has its 80 th birthday this year.In this brief historical overview,the discovery of the therapeutic effects of convulsive therapy by Laszló Meduna,and the circumstances that motivated Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini to use electricity as a means of seizure induction are described.Meduna's original theory about the antagonism between epilepsy and schizophrenia has been replaced by hypotheses on the mechanism of action of ECT.The position of ECT in modern psychiatry is also discussed with special attention to its most important clinical indications,including catatonia,and preand postpartum affective and psychotic states that are responsive to ECT and in which ECT may even be lifesaving.Adverse effects and comparison of ECT with recently developed brain stimulation methods are also reviewed.The negative media portrayal of ECT and its earlier misuse may have contributed to its negative professional and public perceptions indicated repeatedly in attitude surveys.This negative attitude has played an important role in the decreasing use of ECT in the developed world and a reduction in access to ECT,which constitutes a violation of psychiatric patients' right to an effective treatment.
Electroconvulsive therapy(ECT),which is among the oldest and most controversial treatments in the field of psychiatry,has its 80 th birthday this year.In this brief historical overview,the discovery of the therapeutic effects of convulsive therapy by Laszló Meduna,and the circumstances that motivated Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini to use electricity as a means of seizure induction are described.Meduna's original theory about the antagonism between epilepsy and schizophrenia has been replaced by hypotheses on the mechanism of action of ECT.The position of ECT in modern psychiatry is also discussed with special attention to its most important clinical indications,including catatonia,and preand postpartum affective and psychotic states that are responsive to ECT and in which ECT may even be lifesaving.Adverse effects and comparison of ECT with recently developed brain stimulation methods are also reviewed.The negative media portrayal of ECT and its earlier misuse may have contributed to its negative professional and public perceptions indicated repeatedly in attitude surveys.This negative attitude has played an important role in the decreasing use of ECT in the developed world and a reduction in access to ECT,which constitutes a violation of psychiatric patients' right to an effective treatment.
引文
1 Cerletti U,Bini L.Un nuevo metodo di shockterapie“Elettro-shock”.Bollettino Accademia Medica Roma 1938;64:136-138
2 Meduna L.Versucheüber die biologische Beeinflussung des Ablaufes der Schizophrenie.Z ges Neurol Psychiatr 1935;152:234-262[DOI:10.1007/BF02865699]
3 Whitrow M.Julius Wagner-Jauregg(1857-1940).J Med Biogr 1993;Aug;1:137-43[PMID:11615254]
4 Meduna L.Beitr?ge zur Histopathologie der Mikroglia.Arch Psychiatr Nervenk 1927;82:123-193[DOI:10.1007/BF01828859]
5 Hechst B.Zur Histopathologie der Schizophrenie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Ausbreitung des Prozesses.Z ges Neurol Psychiatr 1931;134:163-267[DOI:10.1007/BF02896997]
6 Nyír?Gy,Jablonszky A.Néhány adat az epilepszia prognosisához,kül?n?s tekintettel a constitutióra.Orv Hetil 1929;28:679-681
7 Müller G.Anfalle bei schizophrenen Erkrankungen.Allgemeine Z Psychiat 1930;93:235-240
8 Glaus A.über kombinationen von Schizophrenie und Epilepsie.Z ges Neurol Psychiat 1931;135:450-500[DOI:10.1007/BF02864071]
9 Fink M.Historical Article:Autobiography of L.J.Meduna.Convuls Ther 1985;1:43-57[PMID:11940805]
10 Meduna L.über experimentelle Campherepilepsie.Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr 1934;102:333-339[DOI:10.1007/BF01813815]
11 Gazdag G,Bitter I,Ungvari GS,Baran B,Fink M.LászlóMeduna’s pilot studies with camphor inductions of seizures:the first 11 patients.J ECT 2009;25:3-11[PMID:19209069 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0b013e31819359fc]
12 Meduna L.Die Konvulsionstherapie der Schizophrenie..Halle:Carl Marhold Verlagsbuchhandlung;1937
13 Passione R.Italian psychiatry in an international context:Ugo Cerletti and the case of electroshock.Hist Psychiatry 2004;15:83-104[PMID:15104083 DOI:10.1177/0957154X04039347]
14 Shorter E,Healy D:Shock therapy.A history of electroconvulsive treatment in mental illness..New Brunswick,New Jersey and London:Rutgers University Press;2007
15 Bini L.La tecnica e le manifestazioni dell’elettroshock.Rivista sperimentale di freniatria 1940;18:361-458
16 Baldinger P,Lotan A,Frey R,Kasper S,Lerer B,Lanzenberger R.Neurotransmitters and electroconvulsive therapy.J ECT 2014;30:116-121[PMID:24820941 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000138]
17 Guloksuz S,Rutten BP,Arts B,van Os J,Kenis G.The immune system and electroconvulsive therapy for depression.J ECT 2014;30:132-137[PMID:24755720 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000127]
18 Andrade C,Bolwig TG.Electroconvulsive therapy,hypertensive surge,blood-brain barrier breach,and amnesia:exploring the evidence for a connection.J ECT 2014;30:160-164[PMID:24800688 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000133]
19 de Jong JO,Arts B,Boks MP,Sienaert P,van den Hove DL,Kenis G,van Os J,Rutten BP.Epigenetic effects of electroconvulsive seizures.J ECT 2014;30:152-159[PMID:24810773 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000141]
20 Bouckaert F,Sienaert P,Obbels J,Dols A,Vandenbulcke M,Stek M,Bolwig T.ECT:its brain enabling effects:a review of electroconvulsive therapy-induced structural brain plasticity.J ECT2014;30:143-151[PMID:24810772 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000129]
21 Leiknes KA,Jarosh-von Schweder L,H?ie B.Contemporary use and practice of electroconvulsive therapy worldwide.Brain Behav 2012;2:283-344[PMID:22741102 DOI:10.1002/brb3.37]
22 American Psychiatric Association.The Practice of ECT:Recommendations for Treatment,Training and Privileging,2nd ed..Washington,DC:American Psychiatric Press;2001
23 Royal College of Psychiatrists.The ECT Handbook 3rd edition..Ed:Waite J,Easton A,London:Royal College of Psychiatrists;2013
24 UK ECT Review Group.Efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy in depressive disorders:a systematic review and meta-analysis.Lancet 2003;361:799-808[PMID:12642045DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12705-5]
25 Bennett AE.Metrazol convulsive shock therapy in depressive psychoses.Am J Med Sci 1939;198:695-671[DOI:10.1097/00000441-193911000-00014]
26 National Institute for Clinical Excellence.Guidance on the Use of Electroconvulsive Therapy(Technology Appraisal TA59)London:NICE,2003
27 Kho KH,van Vreeswijk MF,Simpson S,Zwinderman AH.A meta-analysis of electroconvulsive therapy efficacy in depression.J ECT 2003;19:139-147[PMID:12972983 DOI:10.1097/00124509-200309000-00005]
28 Pagnin D,de Queiroz V,Pini S,Cassano GB.Efficacy of ECT in depression:a meta-analytic review.J ECT 2004;20:13-20[PMID:15087991 DOI:10.1097/00124509-200403000-00004]
29 Gábor G,LászlóT.[The efficacy of ECT treatment in depression:a meta-analysis].Psychiatr Hung 2005;20:195-200[PMID:16395953]
30 Kellner CH,Fink M,Knapp R,Petrides G,Husain M,Rummans T,Mueller M,Bernstein H,Rasmussen K,O’connor K,Smith G,Rush AJ,Biggs M,McClintock S,Bailine S,Malur C.Relief of expressed suicidal intent by ECT:a consortium for research in ECT study.Am J Psychiatry2005;162:977-982[PMID:15863801 DOI:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.5.977]
31 Fink M,Kellner CH,McCall WV.The role of ECT in suicide prevention.J ECT 2014;30:5-9[PMID:24091903 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3182a6ad0d]
32 Kellner CH,Knapp RG,Petrides G,Rummans TA,Husain MM,Rasmussen K,Mueller M,Bernstein HJ,O’Connor K,Smith G,Biggs M,Bailine SH,Malur C,Yim E,McClintock S,Sampson S,Fink M.Continuation electroconvulsive therapy vs pharmacotherapy for relapse prevention in major depression:a multisite study from the Consortium for Research in Electroconvulsive Therapy(CORE).Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006;63:1337-1344[PMID:17146008DOI:10.1001/archpsyc.63.12.1337]
33 Chanpattana W,Kunigiri G,Kramer BA,Gangadhar BN.Survey of the practice of electroconvulsive therapy in teaching hospitals in India.J ECT 2005;21:100-104[PMID:15905751DOI:10.1097/01.yct.0000166634.73555.e6]
34 Tang YL,Jiang W,Ren YP,Ma X,Cotes RO,McDonald WM.Electroconvulsive therapy in China:clinical practice and research on efficacy.J ECT 2012;28:206-212[PMID:22801297 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0b013e31825957b1]
35 Pompili M,Lester D,Dominici G,Longo L,Marconi G,Forte A,Serafini G,Amore M,Girardi P.Indications for electroconvulsive treatment in schizophrenia:a systematic review.Schizophr Res2013;146:1-9[PMID:23499244 DOI:10.1016/j.schres.2013.02.005]
36 Xiang YT,Ungvari GS,Correll CU,Chiu HF,Lai KY,Wang CY,Si TM,Lee EH,He YL,Yang SY,Chong MY,Kua EH,Fujii S,Sim K,Yong MK,Trivedi JK,Chung EK,Udomratn P,Chee KY,Sartorius N,Tan CH,Shinfuku N.Use of electroconvulsive therapy for Asian patients with schizophrenia(2001-2009):Trends and correlates.Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2015;69:489-496[PMID:25708964 DOI:10.1111/pcn.12283]
37 Sinclair D,Adams CE.Treatment resistant schizophrenia:a comprehensive survey of randomised controlled trials.BMC Psychiatry 2014;14:253[PMID:25227719 DOI:10.1186/s12888-014-0253-4]
38 Gazdag G,Ungvari GS.Non-pharmacological biological therapies in schizophrenia.Neuropsychopharmacol Hung 2011;13:233-238[PMID:22184192]
39 Lally J,Tully J,Robertson D,Stubbs B,Gaughran F,MacCabe JH.Augmentation of clozapine with electroconvulsive therapy in treatment resistant schizophrenia:A systematic review and meta-analysis.Schizophr Res 2016;171:215-224[PMID:26827129 DOI:10.1016/j.schres.2016.01.024]
40 Gazdag G,Mann SC,Ungvari GS,Caroff SN.Clinical evidence for the efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of catatonia and psychoses.In:Swartz CM(Ed.)Electroconvulsive and Neuromodulation Therapies..New York:Cambridge University Press;2009[DOI:10.1017/CBO9780511576393.008]
41 Ward HB,Szabo ST,Rakesh G.Maintenance ECT in schizophrenia:A systematic review.Psychiatry Res 2018;264:131-142[PMID:29631245 DOI:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.03.033]
42 Bennett AE.Preventing traumatic complications in convulsive shock therapy by curare.JAMA1940;114:322-324
43 Impastato DJ.The use of barbiturates in electroshock therapy.Confinia Neurologica 1954;4:269-275[DOI:10.1159/000105721]
44 Pacella BL,Impastato DJ.Focal stimulation therapy.Am J Psychiatry 1954;110:576-578[DOI:10.1176/ajp.110.8.576]
45 Verwijk E,Spaans HP,Comijs HC,Kho KH,Sienaert P,Bouckaert F,Obbels J,Scherder EJ,Stek ML,Kok RM.Relapse and long-term cognitive performance after brief pulse or ultrabrief pulse right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy:A multicenter naturalistic follow up.J Affect Disord2015;184:137-144[PMID:26093032 DOI:10.1016/j.jad.2015.05.022]
46 Rose D,Fleischmann P,Wykes T,Leese M,Bindman J.Patients’perspectives on electroconvulsive therapy:systematic review.BMJ 2003;326:1363[PMID:12816822 DOI:10.1136/bmj.326.7403.1363]
47 Zheng W,Tong G,Ungvari GS,Ng CH,Chiu HFK,Xiang YQ,Cao XL,Liu ZR,Meng LR,Gazdag G,Xiang YT.Memory impairment following electroconvulsive therapy in chinese patients with schizophrenia:meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Perspect Psychiatr Care 2018;54:107-114[PMID:28138965 DOI:10.1111/ppc.12206]
48 Gazdag G,Dragasek J,Takács R,L?okene M,Sobow T,Olekseev A,Ungvari GS.Use of electroconvulsive therapy in central-Eastern European countries:an overview.Psychiatr Danub2017;29:136-140[PMID:28636570 DOI:10.24869/psyd.2017.136]
49 Nordanskog P,Hultén M,Landén M,Lundberg J,von Knorring L,Nordenskj?ld A.Electroconvulsive Therapy in Sweden 2013:Data From the National Quality Register for ECT.JECT 2015;31:263-267[PMID:25973769 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000243]
50 Gazdag G,Ungvari GS,Czech H.Mass killing under the guise of ECT:the darkest chapter in the history of biological psychiatry.Hist Psychiatry 2017;28:482-488[PMID:28829187 DOI:10.1177/0957154X17724037]
51 McDonald A,Walter G.Hollywood and ECT.Int Rev Psychiatry 2009;21:200-206[PMID:19459094 DOI:10.1080/09540260902747888]
52 Sienaert P.Based on a true story?the portrayal of ECT in international movies and television programs.Brain Stimul 2016;9:882-891[PMID:27522170 DOI:10.1016/j.brs.2016.07.005]
53 Lauber C,Nordt C,Falcato L,R?ssler W.Can a seizure help?The public’s attitude toward electroconvulsive therapy.Psychiatry Res 2005;134:205-209[PMID:15840423 DOI:10.1016/j.psychres.2004.07.010]
54 Golenkov A,Ungvari GS,Gazdag G.Public attitudes towards electroconvulsive therapy in the Chuvash Republic.Int J Soc Psychiatry 2012;58:289-294[PMID:21339235 DOI:10.1177/0020764010394282]
55 Rajagopal R,Chakrabarti S,Grover S.Satisfaction with electroconvulsive therapy among patients and their relatives.J ECT 2013;29:283-290[PMID:23670027 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0b013e318292b010]
56 Vocke S,Bergmann F,Chikere Y,Loh N,Gr?zinger M.Electroconvulsive therapy as viewed by German psychiatrists:a comparison of 3 subgroups.J ECT 2015;31:110-113[PMID:25621540DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000208]
57 Health Quality Ontario.Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment-resistant depression:a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Ont Health Technol Assess Ser 2016;16:1-66[PMID:27099642 DOI:10.1177/0706743716660033]
58 Milev RV,Giacobbe P,Kennedy SH,Blumberger DM,Daskalakis ZJ,Downar J,Modirrousta M,Patry S,Vila-Rodriguez F,Lam RW,MacQueen GM,Parikh SV,Ravindran AV.Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments(CANMAT)2016 clinical guidelines for the management of adults with major depressive disorder:section 4.neurostimulation treatments.Can J Psychiatry 2016;61:561-575[PMID:27486154 DOI:10.1177/0706743716660033]
2 Meduna L.Versucheüber die biologische Beeinflussung des Ablaufes der Schizophrenie.Z ges Neurol Psychiatr 1935;152:234-262[DOI:10.1007/BF02865699]
3 Whitrow M.Julius Wagner-Jauregg(1857-1940).J Med Biogr 1993;Aug;1:137-43[PMID:11615254]
4 Meduna L.Beitr?ge zur Histopathologie der Mikroglia.Arch Psychiatr Nervenk 1927;82:123-193[DOI:10.1007/BF01828859]
5 Hechst B.Zur Histopathologie der Schizophrenie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Ausbreitung des Prozesses.Z ges Neurol Psychiatr 1931;134:163-267[DOI:10.1007/BF02896997]
6 Nyír?Gy,Jablonszky A.Néhány adat az epilepszia prognosisához,kül?n?s tekintettel a constitutióra.Orv Hetil 1929;28:679-681
7 Müller G.Anfalle bei schizophrenen Erkrankungen.Allgemeine Z Psychiat 1930;93:235-240
8 Glaus A.über kombinationen von Schizophrenie und Epilepsie.Z ges Neurol Psychiat 1931;135:450-500[DOI:10.1007/BF02864071]
9 Fink M.Historical Article:Autobiography of L.J.Meduna.Convuls Ther 1985;1:43-57[PMID:11940805]
10 Meduna L.über experimentelle Campherepilepsie.Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr 1934;102:333-339[DOI:10.1007/BF01813815]
11 Gazdag G,Bitter I,Ungvari GS,Baran B,Fink M.LászlóMeduna’s pilot studies with camphor inductions of seizures:the first 11 patients.J ECT 2009;25:3-11[PMID:19209069 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0b013e31819359fc]
12 Meduna L.Die Konvulsionstherapie der Schizophrenie..Halle:Carl Marhold Verlagsbuchhandlung;1937
13 Passione R.Italian psychiatry in an international context:Ugo Cerletti and the case of electroshock.Hist Psychiatry 2004;15:83-104[PMID:15104083 DOI:10.1177/0957154X04039347]
14 Shorter E,Healy D:Shock therapy.A history of electroconvulsive treatment in mental illness..New Brunswick,New Jersey and London:Rutgers University Press;2007
15 Bini L.La tecnica e le manifestazioni dell’elettroshock.Rivista sperimentale di freniatria 1940;18:361-458
16 Baldinger P,Lotan A,Frey R,Kasper S,Lerer B,Lanzenberger R.Neurotransmitters and electroconvulsive therapy.J ECT 2014;30:116-121[PMID:24820941 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000138]
17 Guloksuz S,Rutten BP,Arts B,van Os J,Kenis G.The immune system and electroconvulsive therapy for depression.J ECT 2014;30:132-137[PMID:24755720 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000127]
18 Andrade C,Bolwig TG.Electroconvulsive therapy,hypertensive surge,blood-brain barrier breach,and amnesia:exploring the evidence for a connection.J ECT 2014;30:160-164[PMID:24800688 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000133]
19 de Jong JO,Arts B,Boks MP,Sienaert P,van den Hove DL,Kenis G,van Os J,Rutten BP.Epigenetic effects of electroconvulsive seizures.J ECT 2014;30:152-159[PMID:24810773 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000141]
20 Bouckaert F,Sienaert P,Obbels J,Dols A,Vandenbulcke M,Stek M,Bolwig T.ECT:its brain enabling effects:a review of electroconvulsive therapy-induced structural brain plasticity.J ECT2014;30:143-151[PMID:24810772 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000129]
21 Leiknes KA,Jarosh-von Schweder L,H?ie B.Contemporary use and practice of electroconvulsive therapy worldwide.Brain Behav 2012;2:283-344[PMID:22741102 DOI:10.1002/brb3.37]
22 American Psychiatric Association.The Practice of ECT:Recommendations for Treatment,Training and Privileging,2nd ed..Washington,DC:American Psychiatric Press;2001
23 Royal College of Psychiatrists.The ECT Handbook 3rd edition..Ed:Waite J,Easton A,London:Royal College of Psychiatrists;2013
24 UK ECT Review Group.Efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy in depressive disorders:a systematic review and meta-analysis.Lancet 2003;361:799-808[PMID:12642045DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12705-5]
25 Bennett AE.Metrazol convulsive shock therapy in depressive psychoses.Am J Med Sci 1939;198:695-671[DOI:10.1097/00000441-193911000-00014]
26 National Institute for Clinical Excellence.Guidance on the Use of Electroconvulsive Therapy(Technology Appraisal TA59)London:NICE,2003
27 Kho KH,van Vreeswijk MF,Simpson S,Zwinderman AH.A meta-analysis of electroconvulsive therapy efficacy in depression.J ECT 2003;19:139-147[PMID:12972983 DOI:10.1097/00124509-200309000-00005]
28 Pagnin D,de Queiroz V,Pini S,Cassano GB.Efficacy of ECT in depression:a meta-analytic review.J ECT 2004;20:13-20[PMID:15087991 DOI:10.1097/00124509-200403000-00004]
29 Gábor G,LászlóT.[The efficacy of ECT treatment in depression:a meta-analysis].Psychiatr Hung 2005;20:195-200[PMID:16395953]
30 Kellner CH,Fink M,Knapp R,Petrides G,Husain M,Rummans T,Mueller M,Bernstein H,Rasmussen K,O’connor K,Smith G,Rush AJ,Biggs M,McClintock S,Bailine S,Malur C.Relief of expressed suicidal intent by ECT:a consortium for research in ECT study.Am J Psychiatry2005;162:977-982[PMID:15863801 DOI:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.5.977]
31 Fink M,Kellner CH,McCall WV.The role of ECT in suicide prevention.J ECT 2014;30:5-9[PMID:24091903 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3182a6ad0d]
32 Kellner CH,Knapp RG,Petrides G,Rummans TA,Husain MM,Rasmussen K,Mueller M,Bernstein HJ,O’Connor K,Smith G,Biggs M,Bailine SH,Malur C,Yim E,McClintock S,Sampson S,Fink M.Continuation electroconvulsive therapy vs pharmacotherapy for relapse prevention in major depression:a multisite study from the Consortium for Research in Electroconvulsive Therapy(CORE).Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006;63:1337-1344[PMID:17146008DOI:10.1001/archpsyc.63.12.1337]
33 Chanpattana W,Kunigiri G,Kramer BA,Gangadhar BN.Survey of the practice of electroconvulsive therapy in teaching hospitals in India.J ECT 2005;21:100-104[PMID:15905751DOI:10.1097/01.yct.0000166634.73555.e6]
34 Tang YL,Jiang W,Ren YP,Ma X,Cotes RO,McDonald WM.Electroconvulsive therapy in China:clinical practice and research on efficacy.J ECT 2012;28:206-212[PMID:22801297 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0b013e31825957b1]
35 Pompili M,Lester D,Dominici G,Longo L,Marconi G,Forte A,Serafini G,Amore M,Girardi P.Indications for electroconvulsive treatment in schizophrenia:a systematic review.Schizophr Res2013;146:1-9[PMID:23499244 DOI:10.1016/j.schres.2013.02.005]
36 Xiang YT,Ungvari GS,Correll CU,Chiu HF,Lai KY,Wang CY,Si TM,Lee EH,He YL,Yang SY,Chong MY,Kua EH,Fujii S,Sim K,Yong MK,Trivedi JK,Chung EK,Udomratn P,Chee KY,Sartorius N,Tan CH,Shinfuku N.Use of electroconvulsive therapy for Asian patients with schizophrenia(2001-2009):Trends and correlates.Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2015;69:489-496[PMID:25708964 DOI:10.1111/pcn.12283]
37 Sinclair D,Adams CE.Treatment resistant schizophrenia:a comprehensive survey of randomised controlled trials.BMC Psychiatry 2014;14:253[PMID:25227719 DOI:10.1186/s12888-014-0253-4]
38 Gazdag G,Ungvari GS.Non-pharmacological biological therapies in schizophrenia.Neuropsychopharmacol Hung 2011;13:233-238[PMID:22184192]
39 Lally J,Tully J,Robertson D,Stubbs B,Gaughran F,MacCabe JH.Augmentation of clozapine with electroconvulsive therapy in treatment resistant schizophrenia:A systematic review and meta-analysis.Schizophr Res 2016;171:215-224[PMID:26827129 DOI:10.1016/j.schres.2016.01.024]
40 Gazdag G,Mann SC,Ungvari GS,Caroff SN.Clinical evidence for the efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of catatonia and psychoses.In:Swartz CM(Ed.)Electroconvulsive and Neuromodulation Therapies..New York:Cambridge University Press;2009[DOI:10.1017/CBO9780511576393.008]
41 Ward HB,Szabo ST,Rakesh G.Maintenance ECT in schizophrenia:A systematic review.Psychiatry Res 2018;264:131-142[PMID:29631245 DOI:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.03.033]
42 Bennett AE.Preventing traumatic complications in convulsive shock therapy by curare.JAMA1940;114:322-324
43 Impastato DJ.The use of barbiturates in electroshock therapy.Confinia Neurologica 1954;4:269-275[DOI:10.1159/000105721]
44 Pacella BL,Impastato DJ.Focal stimulation therapy.Am J Psychiatry 1954;110:576-578[DOI:10.1176/ajp.110.8.576]
45 Verwijk E,Spaans HP,Comijs HC,Kho KH,Sienaert P,Bouckaert F,Obbels J,Scherder EJ,Stek ML,Kok RM.Relapse and long-term cognitive performance after brief pulse or ultrabrief pulse right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy:A multicenter naturalistic follow up.J Affect Disord2015;184:137-144[PMID:26093032 DOI:10.1016/j.jad.2015.05.022]
46 Rose D,Fleischmann P,Wykes T,Leese M,Bindman J.Patients’perspectives on electroconvulsive therapy:systematic review.BMJ 2003;326:1363[PMID:12816822 DOI:10.1136/bmj.326.7403.1363]
47 Zheng W,Tong G,Ungvari GS,Ng CH,Chiu HFK,Xiang YQ,Cao XL,Liu ZR,Meng LR,Gazdag G,Xiang YT.Memory impairment following electroconvulsive therapy in chinese patients with schizophrenia:meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Perspect Psychiatr Care 2018;54:107-114[PMID:28138965 DOI:10.1111/ppc.12206]
48 Gazdag G,Dragasek J,Takács R,L?okene M,Sobow T,Olekseev A,Ungvari GS.Use of electroconvulsive therapy in central-Eastern European countries:an overview.Psychiatr Danub2017;29:136-140[PMID:28636570 DOI:10.24869/psyd.2017.136]
49 Nordanskog P,Hultén M,Landén M,Lundberg J,von Knorring L,Nordenskj?ld A.Electroconvulsive Therapy in Sweden 2013:Data From the National Quality Register for ECT.JECT 2015;31:263-267[PMID:25973769 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000243]
50 Gazdag G,Ungvari GS,Czech H.Mass killing under the guise of ECT:the darkest chapter in the history of biological psychiatry.Hist Psychiatry 2017;28:482-488[PMID:28829187 DOI:10.1177/0957154X17724037]
51 McDonald A,Walter G.Hollywood and ECT.Int Rev Psychiatry 2009;21:200-206[PMID:19459094 DOI:10.1080/09540260902747888]
52 Sienaert P.Based on a true story?the portrayal of ECT in international movies and television programs.Brain Stimul 2016;9:882-891[PMID:27522170 DOI:10.1016/j.brs.2016.07.005]
53 Lauber C,Nordt C,Falcato L,R?ssler W.Can a seizure help?The public’s attitude toward electroconvulsive therapy.Psychiatry Res 2005;134:205-209[PMID:15840423 DOI:10.1016/j.psychres.2004.07.010]
54 Golenkov A,Ungvari GS,Gazdag G.Public attitudes towards electroconvulsive therapy in the Chuvash Republic.Int J Soc Psychiatry 2012;58:289-294[PMID:21339235 DOI:10.1177/0020764010394282]
55 Rajagopal R,Chakrabarti S,Grover S.Satisfaction with electroconvulsive therapy among patients and their relatives.J ECT 2013;29:283-290[PMID:23670027 DOI:10.1097/YCT.0b013e318292b010]
56 Vocke S,Bergmann F,Chikere Y,Loh N,Gr?zinger M.Electroconvulsive therapy as viewed by German psychiatrists:a comparison of 3 subgroups.J ECT 2015;31:110-113[PMID:25621540DOI:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000208]
57 Health Quality Ontario.Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment-resistant depression:a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Ont Health Technol Assess Ser 2016;16:1-66[PMID:27099642 DOI:10.1177/0706743716660033]
58 Milev RV,Giacobbe P,Kennedy SH,Blumberger DM,Daskalakis ZJ,Downar J,Modirrousta M,Patry S,Vila-Rodriguez F,Lam RW,MacQueen GM,Parikh SV,Ravindran AV.Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments(CANMAT)2016 clinical guidelines for the management of adults with major depressive disorder:section 4.neurostimulation treatments.Can J Psychiatry 2016;61:561-575[PMID:27486154 DOI:10.1177/0706743716660033]