消失的国家:海平面上升对国际法的挑战及应对
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摘要
气候变化和海平面上升给国际社会特别是低洼沿海国家带来严重威胁,也对国际法带来重大挑战。低洼、偏远的(发展中)小岛屿国家可能将逐步被淹没,引发包括海洋边界、国家主体地位、新的无国籍状态、跨境气候难民人权保护等诸多复杂法律问题。海平面上升可能从根本上改变海岸线,给岛屿、基线和全球海洋边界带来不确定性,增加国家间海洋权益争端。《联合国海洋法公约》尚未澄清导致领海基线后退的海平面上升是否会影响沿海国管辖海域的外部边界。海洋法、国际环境法、国际人权法等尚未能为国家应对该危机提供规则支持。《维也纳条约法公约》第62条不支持将海平面上升作为国家可单方面终止边界条约的情势变更。永久固定或冻结基线将促进海域边界的稳定并有利于海洋划界。一个领土"物理"丧失或不适宜居住的国家应能继续保持其"国家"地位,但其生存与海域管辖权行使将面临难题。
Climate change and sea level rise create important challenges for the international community in general and for low-lying coastal states in particular. Low-lying,remote(developing) small island countries may gradually be submerged,causing many complex legal issues,such as the sea border,statehood,new statelessness,human rights protection of the cross-border climate refugees. Rising sea levels could radically alter coastlines,bringing uncertainty to islands,baselines and global maritime boundaries and increasing maritime disputes between nations. UNCLOS has not yet clarified whether rising sea levels,which cause the territorial baseline to recede,will affect the outer boundaries of coastal waters.The law of the sea,international environmental law and international human rights law have not yet provided rule support for countries to deal with the crisis. Article 62 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties does not regard sea-level rise as a change of circumstances in which states can unilaterally terminate border treaties. Permanent fixation or freezing of baselines will promote stability in the location of limits of maritime zones and also in maritime delimitation boundaries. A state whose territory is lost or unfit to live should be able to maintain its "state"status,but its survival and exercise of maritime jurisdiction will face difficulties.
Climate change and sea level rise create important challenges for the international community in general and for low-lying coastal states in particular. Low-lying,remote(developing) small island countries may gradually be submerged,causing many complex legal issues,such as the sea border,statehood,new statelessness,human rights protection of the cross-border climate refugees. Rising sea levels could radically alter coastlines,bringing uncertainty to islands,baselines and global maritime boundaries and increasing maritime disputes between nations. UNCLOS has not yet clarified whether rising sea levels,which cause the territorial baseline to recede,will affect the outer boundaries of coastal waters.The law of the sea,international environmental law and international human rights law have not yet provided rule support for countries to deal with the crisis. Article 62 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties does not regard sea-level rise as a change of circumstances in which states can unilaterally terminate border treaties. Permanent fixation or freezing of baselines will promote stability in the location of limits of maritime zones and also in maritime delimitation boundaries. A state whose territory is lost or unfit to live should be able to maintain its "state"status,but its survival and exercise of maritime jurisdiction will face difficulties.
引文
[1]S.Jeffress Williams.Sea-Level Rise Implications for Coastal Regions[J].Journal of Coastal Research,2013(60):184.
[2]Myron H.Nordquist,John Norton Moore,Tomas H.Heidar.Changes in the Arctic Environment and the Law of the Sea[M].Leiden·Boston:Martinus Nijhoef Publishers,2010:108.
[3]Robin Kundis Craig.A Public Health Perspective on Sea-level Rise:Starting Points for Climate Change Adaptation[J].Widener Law Review,2010(15).
[4]Jonathan Lusthaus.Shifting Sands:Sea Level Rise,Maritime Boundaries and Inter-state Conict[J].Politics,2010,30(2).
[5]Tony George Puthucherril.Rising Seas,Receding Coastlines,and Vanishing Maritime Estates and Territories:Possible Solutions and Reassessing the Role of International Law[J].International Community Law Review,2014(16).
[6]Patrick D.Nunn.The End of the Pacic?Effects of Sea Level Rise on Pacic Island Livelihoods[J].Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography,2013(34).
[7]吉迪恩·拉赫曼.移民问题决定西方政治走向[N].参考消息,2018-05-10(13).
[8]Anders-Johan Almas,Hans Olav Hygen.Impacts of Sea Level Rise towards 2100 on Buildings in Norway[J].Building Research&Information,2012,40(3):245.
[9]Davor Vidas,David Freestone,Jane McAdarn.International Law and Sea Level Rise:The New ILA Committee[J].ILSA Journal of International&Comparative Law,2015,21(2).
[10]Sarra Sefrioui.Adapting to Sea Level Rise:A Law of Sea Perspective[M].Springer,2017.
[11]Rosemary Rayfuse.W(h)ither Tuvalu?International Law and Disappearing States[R].University of New South Wales Faculty of Law Research Series,2009(9).
[12]David Freestone,John Pethick.Sea Level Rise and Maritime Boundaries:International Implications of Impacts and Responses[G]//Gerald H.Blake.Maritime Boundaries:World Boundaries.London:Routledge,1997:409.
[13]史学瀛,刘晗.气候移民的国际法保护困境与对策[J].南开学报(哲学社会科学版),2016(6):71.
[14]何志鹏.国际法[M].北京:清华大学出版社,2014:160.
[15]Virginie Arnaud.Forced Environmental Migration and International Refugee Law:A Critical Review[R].Paper Presented at the International Colloquium on Social Sciences.Paris Universitéde Grenoble,2016:3.
[16]Rosemary G.Rayfuse.International Law and Disappearing States:Utilising Maritime Entitlements to Overcome the Statehood Dilemma[R].UNSW Law Research Paper No.2010-52,2010:1-13.
[17]Jane McAdam,Bruce Burson,Walter K lin,Sanjula Weerasinghe.International Law and Sea-Level Rise:Forced Migration and Human Rights[R].FNI Report 1,2016.
[18]Aneire E.Khan,Wei W.Xun,Habibul Ahsan,Paolo Vineis.Climate Change and Sea Level Rise&Health Impacts in Bangladesh[J].Environment,2011,53(5):19,21.
[19]Stoutenburg.Implementing a New Regime of Stable Maritime Zones to Ensure the(Economic)Survival of Small Island States Threatened by Sea-Level Rise[J].The International journal of Marine and Coastal Law,2011(26).
[20]JoséLuis Jesus.Rocks,New-born Islands,Sea Level Rise and Maritime Space[G]∥Jochen Abr.Frowein.Verhandeln für den Frieden.Berlin:Springer,2003:579,601.
[21]J.Grote Stoutenburg.Implementing a New Regime of Stable Maritime Zones to Ensure the(Economic)Survival of Small Island States Threatened by Sea-Level Rise[J].The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law,2011(26).
[22]Abhimanyu George Jain.The 21stCentury Atlantis:The International Law of Statehood and Climate Change-induced Loss of Territory[J].Standford Journal of International Law,2014,50(1):1.
[23]李响,等.中国沿海地区海平面上升脆弱性区划[J].灾害学,2016,31(4).
[24]Clive Schofield.Shifting Limits?Sea Level Rise and Options to Secure Maritime Jurisdictional Claims[J].Carbon&Climate Law Review,2009,3(4):411.
(1)这是因为它们主要由很少或没有陆地的小环礁组成,仅位于海平面以上几米处。因此,这些小岛屿发展中国家的特点是自然资源基础薄弱,水资源少,土壤质量差,无法支持集约化耕作。一般来说,这些岛屿的主要收入来源是旅游和捕鱼,大部分食物都是进口的。天气的任何变化都会扰乱微妙的平衡并使这些国家陷入混乱。这些岛屿很容易遭受风暴潮、侵蚀和洪水等海岸灾害的袭击。此外,随着海洋开始消耗土地,海岛国家将失去支持沿海社区生计、文化和传统的经济资源、重要基础设施、定居点和设施。由于海岸线长度与陆地面积之间的比例非常高,一般认为,到21世纪中叶,气候变化将减少这些小岛屿中若干个饮用水源,直到他们无法满足低降雨期间的基本要求。
(1)UNCLOS第7.2条规定:“在因有三角洲和其他自然条件以致海岸线非常不稳定之处,可沿低潮线向海最远处选择各适当点,而且,尽管以后低潮线发生后退现象,该直线基线在沿海国按照本公约加以改变以前仍然有效。”
(1)在过去的22年里,孟加拉国的海平面上升速度比全球海平面100年间的上升速度还要快。据估计,三个监测站的水位平均每年上升4毫米、6毫米和7.8毫米。由于构造运动,地面水平略有下降,推动了海平面的平均相对上升。
(1)参见:United States v.Alaska,503 U.S.569,588 No.10(1992).
(1)不会失去其国家地位的原因有三:第一,鉴于领土对国家的效用递减,至少是为了维持已建立的国家地位,领土不必是必要条件;第二,设立国家的领土要求不一定意味着国家地位的持续也有领土要求,国际法对领土物理消失的国家地位的丧失问题是沉默的,在这种情况下,公平要求应保留国家地位;第三,承认的政治现实将确保这些小岛屿国家地位的存续。但这种持续的国家地位提出了一个问题:如果没有领土,这些国家将如何生存?有两种选择:获取新领土或去领土化的存在(deterritorialised existence)。两者皆有可能,但存重大实际障碍。在短期内,这些国家的法律地位将受国际法保护,但从长期看,它们很可能将不再作为事实上的国家存在。
[2]Myron H.Nordquist,John Norton Moore,Tomas H.Heidar.Changes in the Arctic Environment and the Law of the Sea[M].Leiden·Boston:Martinus Nijhoef Publishers,2010:108.
[3]Robin Kundis Craig.A Public Health Perspective on Sea-level Rise:Starting Points for Climate Change Adaptation[J].Widener Law Review,2010(15).
[4]Jonathan Lusthaus.Shifting Sands:Sea Level Rise,Maritime Boundaries and Inter-state Conict[J].Politics,2010,30(2).
[5]Tony George Puthucherril.Rising Seas,Receding Coastlines,and Vanishing Maritime Estates and Territories:Possible Solutions and Reassessing the Role of International Law[J].International Community Law Review,2014(16).
[6]Patrick D.Nunn.The End of the Pacic?Effects of Sea Level Rise on Pacic Island Livelihoods[J].Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography,2013(34).
[7]吉迪恩·拉赫曼.移民问题决定西方政治走向[N].参考消息,2018-05-10(13).
[8]Anders-Johan Almas,Hans Olav Hygen.Impacts of Sea Level Rise towards 2100 on Buildings in Norway[J].Building Research&Information,2012,40(3):245.
[9]Davor Vidas,David Freestone,Jane McAdarn.International Law and Sea Level Rise:The New ILA Committee[J].ILSA Journal of International&Comparative Law,2015,21(2).
[10]Sarra Sefrioui.Adapting to Sea Level Rise:A Law of Sea Perspective[M].Springer,2017.
[11]Rosemary Rayfuse.W(h)ither Tuvalu?International Law and Disappearing States[R].University of New South Wales Faculty of Law Research Series,2009(9).
[12]David Freestone,John Pethick.Sea Level Rise and Maritime Boundaries:International Implications of Impacts and Responses[G]//Gerald H.Blake.Maritime Boundaries:World Boundaries.London:Routledge,1997:409.
[13]史学瀛,刘晗.气候移民的国际法保护困境与对策[J].南开学报(哲学社会科学版),2016(6):71.
[14]何志鹏.国际法[M].北京:清华大学出版社,2014:160.
[15]Virginie Arnaud.Forced Environmental Migration and International Refugee Law:A Critical Review[R].Paper Presented at the International Colloquium on Social Sciences.Paris Universitéde Grenoble,2016:3.
[16]Rosemary G.Rayfuse.International Law and Disappearing States:Utilising Maritime Entitlements to Overcome the Statehood Dilemma[R].UNSW Law Research Paper No.2010-52,2010:1-13.
[17]Jane McAdam,Bruce Burson,Walter K lin,Sanjula Weerasinghe.International Law and Sea-Level Rise:Forced Migration and Human Rights[R].FNI Report 1,2016.
[18]Aneire E.Khan,Wei W.Xun,Habibul Ahsan,Paolo Vineis.Climate Change and Sea Level Rise&Health Impacts in Bangladesh[J].Environment,2011,53(5):19,21.
[19]Stoutenburg.Implementing a New Regime of Stable Maritime Zones to Ensure the(Economic)Survival of Small Island States Threatened by Sea-Level Rise[J].The International journal of Marine and Coastal Law,2011(26).
[20]JoséLuis Jesus.Rocks,New-born Islands,Sea Level Rise and Maritime Space[G]∥Jochen Abr.Frowein.Verhandeln für den Frieden.Berlin:Springer,2003:579,601.
[21]J.Grote Stoutenburg.Implementing a New Regime of Stable Maritime Zones to Ensure the(Economic)Survival of Small Island States Threatened by Sea-Level Rise[J].The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law,2011(26).
[22]Abhimanyu George Jain.The 21stCentury Atlantis:The International Law of Statehood and Climate Change-induced Loss of Territory[J].Standford Journal of International Law,2014,50(1):1.
[23]李响,等.中国沿海地区海平面上升脆弱性区划[J].灾害学,2016,31(4).
[24]Clive Schofield.Shifting Limits?Sea Level Rise and Options to Secure Maritime Jurisdictional Claims[J].Carbon&Climate Law Review,2009,3(4):411.
(1)这是因为它们主要由很少或没有陆地的小环礁组成,仅位于海平面以上几米处。因此,这些小岛屿发展中国家的特点是自然资源基础薄弱,水资源少,土壤质量差,无法支持集约化耕作。一般来说,这些岛屿的主要收入来源是旅游和捕鱼,大部分食物都是进口的。天气的任何变化都会扰乱微妙的平衡并使这些国家陷入混乱。这些岛屿很容易遭受风暴潮、侵蚀和洪水等海岸灾害的袭击。此外,随着海洋开始消耗土地,海岛国家将失去支持沿海社区生计、文化和传统的经济资源、重要基础设施、定居点和设施。由于海岸线长度与陆地面积之间的比例非常高,一般认为,到21世纪中叶,气候变化将减少这些小岛屿中若干个饮用水源,直到他们无法满足低降雨期间的基本要求。
(1)UNCLOS第7.2条规定:“在因有三角洲和其他自然条件以致海岸线非常不稳定之处,可沿低潮线向海最远处选择各适当点,而且,尽管以后低潮线发生后退现象,该直线基线在沿海国按照本公约加以改变以前仍然有效。”
(1)在过去的22年里,孟加拉国的海平面上升速度比全球海平面100年间的上升速度还要快。据估计,三个监测站的水位平均每年上升4毫米、6毫米和7.8毫米。由于构造运动,地面水平略有下降,推动了海平面的平均相对上升。
(1)参见:United States v.Alaska,503 U.S.569,588 No.10(1992).
(1)不会失去其国家地位的原因有三:第一,鉴于领土对国家的效用递减,至少是为了维持已建立的国家地位,领土不必是必要条件;第二,设立国家的领土要求不一定意味着国家地位的持续也有领土要求,国际法对领土物理消失的国家地位的丧失问题是沉默的,在这种情况下,公平要求应保留国家地位;第三,承认的政治现实将确保这些小岛屿国家地位的存续。但这种持续的国家地位提出了一个问题:如果没有领土,这些国家将如何生存?有两种选择:获取新领土或去领土化的存在(deterritorialised existence)。两者皆有可能,但存重大实际障碍。在短期内,这些国家的法律地位将受国际法保护,但从长期看,它们很可能将不再作为事实上的国家存在。