近红外单光子激光雷达人眼安全分析
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摘要
近年来基于单光子雪崩二极管(SPAD)的激光雷达得到迅猛发展,已经从军事侦察、生物探测等特殊领域走向需求量巨大的无人驾驶系统等民用领域。由砷化镓、磷化铟等材料制备的SPAD探测器可以对1. 54μm以上的近红外长波响应,具有人眼安全性,但制造成本高且难以实现大规模集成,无法满足低成本和高集成度的民用要求。目前,硅基SPAD探测器通过结构和工艺优化实现了对0. 7～1. 1μm近红外短波光子的高效探测,大幅度降低激光发射功率,从而降低了激光对人眼的伤害。但为了安全工作,还必须对人眼安全问题进行分析。本文在分析SPAD激光雷达研究现状的基础上对近红外短波激光雷达的人眼安全进行了深入和全面的分析,根据美国国家激光标准精确计算出符合人眼安全的激光能量和照射时间,为硅基SPAD民用激光雷达的应用提供了设计依据。
In recent years,the laser radar based on single photon avalanche diode( SPAD) has been developed rapidly. It has been applied from military reconnaissance,biological detection and other special fields to the civilian fields such as unmanned systems which are in great demand. The SPAD detectors fabricated by gallium arsenide or indium phosphide,can respond to the near infrared with wave length longer than 1. 54 μm,and be safe for human eyes. However,due to high manufacturing cost and small-scale integration,they cannot meet the requirements of low cost and high integration civil requirements. Presently,the silicon based SPAD detector can efficiently detect near infrared from 0. 7 to 1. 1μm through structure and technology optimization,which greatly reduce the laser power and the laser damage to the human eye. But in order to work safely,it is necessary to analyze the safety of human eyes. In this paper,based on the analysis of the current research status of SPAD radar,the human eye safety of near infrared shortwave radar is deeply and comprehensively analyzed. According to ANSI,the laser power and irradiation time conforming to the human eye safety are accurately calculated,which provides design basis for the application of silicon-based SPAD civil laser radar.
In recent years,the laser radar based on single photon avalanche diode( SPAD) has been developed rapidly. It has been applied from military reconnaissance,biological detection and other special fields to the civilian fields such as unmanned systems which are in great demand. The SPAD detectors fabricated by gallium arsenide or indium phosphide,can respond to the near infrared with wave length longer than 1. 54 μm,and be safe for human eyes. However,due to high manufacturing cost and small-scale integration,they cannot meet the requirements of low cost and high integration civil requirements. Presently,the silicon based SPAD detector can efficiently detect near infrared from 0. 7 to 1. 1μm through structure and technology optimization,which greatly reduce the laser power and the laser damage to the human eye. But in order to work safely,it is necessary to analyze the safety of human eyes. In this paper,based on the analysis of the current research status of SPAD radar,the human eye safety of near infrared shortwave radar is deeply and comprehensively analyzed. According to ANSI,the laser power and irradiation time conforming to the human eye safety are accurately calculated,which provides design basis for the application of silicon-based SPAD civil laser radar.
引文
[1]ZHU Jinghao.Analysis and experimental study on non-uniformity of array APD scanning laser radar[D].Harbin:Harbin Institute of Technology,2013.(in Chinese)朱静浩.阵列APD无扫描激光雷达非均匀性的分析与实验研究[D].哈尔滨:哈尔滨工业大学,2013.
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[10]Lindner S,Pellegrini S,Henrion Y,et al.A High-PDE,backside-iiluminated SPAD in 65/40-nm 3D IC CMOSpixel with cascoded passive quenching and active recharge[J].IEEE Electron Device Letters,2017,38(11):1547-1550.
[11]Veerappan C,Charbon E.A low dark count p-i-n diode based SPAD in CMOS technology[J].IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices,2015,63(1):65-71.(in Chinese)
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[14]Lussana R,Villa F,Dalla M A,et al.Enhanced singlephoton time-of-flight 3D ranging[J].Optics Express,2015,23(19):24962.
[15]Villa F,Lussana R,Bronzi D,et al.CMOS imager with1024 SPADs and TDCs for single-photon timing and 3-Dtime-of-flight[J].IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics,2014,20(6):364-373.
[16]Villa F,Markovic B,Bronzi D,et al.SPAD detector for long-distance 3D ranging with sub-nanosecond TDC[C]//Photonics Conference,IEEE,2012:24-25.
[17]Acconcia G,Crotti M,Antonioli S,et al.High performance time-to-amplitude converter array[C]//Time-To-Digital Converters,IEEE,2013:1-5.
[18]Mora A D,Tosi A,Zappa F,et al.Fast-gated single-photon avalanche diode for Wide dynamic range near infrared spectroscopy[J].IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics,2010,16(4):1023-1030.
[19]Pancheri L,Massari N,Stoppa D.SPAD image sensor with analog counting pixel for time-resolved fluorescence detection[J].IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices,2013,60(10):3442-3449.
[20]Gersbach M,Maruyama Y,Labonne E,et al.A parallel 32×32 time-to-digital converter array fabricated in a130 nm imaging CMOS technology[C]//ESSCIRC,2009.ESSCIRC'09.Proceedings of IEEE,2009:196-199.
[21]Pavia J M,Scandini M,Lindner S,et al.A 1×400 backside-iiluminated SPAD sensor with 49.7 ps resolution,30 p J/sample TDCs fabricated in 3D CMOS technology for near-infrared optical tomography[J].IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits,2015,50(10):2406-2418.
[22]C.Niclass,A.Rochas,Besse,et al.Design and characterization of a CMOS 3-D image sensor based on single photon avalanche diodes[J].IEEE J.Solid-State Circ.,2005,40(9):1847-1854.
[23]Niclass C,Soga M,Matsubara H,et al.A 100-m range 10-frame/s 340×96-pixel time-of-flight depth sensor in 0.18μm CMOS[J].IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits,2013,48(2):559-572.
[24]Niclass C,Rochas A,Besse P A,et al.A CMOS 3D camera with millimetric depth resolution[C]//Custom Integrated Circuits Conference,Proceedings of the IEEE,2004:705-708.
[25]Erdogan A T,Walker R,Finlayson N,et al.A 16.5 giga events/s 1024×8 SPAD line sensor with per-pixel zoomable50ps-6.4ns/bin histogramming TDC[C]//VLSI Circuits,2017 Symposium on.IEEE,2017:C292-C293.
[26]Braga L H C,Gasparini L,Grant L,et al.An 8×16-pixel92kSPAD time-resolved sensor with on-pixel 64ps 12b TDC and 100MS/s real-time energy histogramming in0.13μm CIS technology for PET/MRI applications[C]//Solid-State Circuits Conference Digest of Technical Papers.IEEE,2013:486-487.
[27]ZHENG Ruitong,WU Guanhao.Pulsed one-dimensional unscanned laser radar system based on linear array APDdetector[J].Infrared and Laser Engineering,2012,41(1):96-100.(in Chinese)郑睿童,吴冠豪.基于线列APD探测器的脉冲式一维扫描激光雷达系统[J].红外与激光工程,2012,41(1):96-100.
[28]GONG Chimiao.Research on laser array reception signal acquisition and processing[D].Beijing University of Technology,2014.(in Chinese)龚驰邈.激光阵列接收信号采集与处理研究[D].北京:北京理工大学,2014.
[29]Zhou G,Zhou X,Yang J,et al.Flash lidar sensor using fiber-coupled APDs[J].IEEE Sensors Journal,2015,15(9):4758-4768.
[30]XU Zhengping,SHEN Honghai,YAO Yuan,et al.Direct ranging scanning laser active imaging verification system[J].Optical Precision Engineering,2016,24(2):251-259.(in Chinese)徐正平,沈宏海,姚园,等.直接测距型无扫描激光主动成像验证系统[J].光学精密工程,2016,24(2):251-259.
[2]Ping Xiang,Yue Xu.Improved photon detection efficiency of single photon avalanche diodes with buried layer structure[C]//2016 13th IEEE International Conference on Solid-State and Integrated Circuit Technology(ICSICT),Hangzhou,2016:691-693.
[3]Petticrew J D,Dimler S J,Zhou X,et al.Avalanche breakdown timing statistics for silicon single photon avalanche diodes[J].IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics,2017,(99):1-1.
[4]Brian F.Aull,Richard M.Marino,Alexander K.McIntosh,et al.Three-dimensional laser radar with APD arrays[J].Proceedings of SPIE-The International Society for Optical Engineering,2001,4377:106-117.
[5]Albota M A,Aull B F,Fouche D G,et al.Three-dimensional Imaging Laser Radars with Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode arrays[J].Mit Lincoln Laboratory Journal,2002.
[6]Richard M.Marino,Luke Skelly.A compact 3D imaging laser radar system using Geiger-mode APD arrays:system and measurements[J].Proceedings of SPIE-The International Society for Optical Engineering,2003,5086:1-15.
[7]Marino R M,Skelly L J,Vasile A.High-resolution 3D imaging laser radar flight test experiments[J].Proceedings of SPIE-The International Society for Optical Engineering,2005,54(54):138-151.
[8]Albota MA,Heinrichs RM,Kocher DG,et al.Three-dimensional imaging laser radar with a photon-counting avalanche photodiode array and microchip laser[J].Applied Optics,2002,41(36):7671-7678.
[9]PAN Qiujuan,YANG Yan,CHANG Liang,et al.Human eye safety analysis of 400~1400nm pulsed laser radiation[J].Laser&Infrared,2010,40(8):821-824.(in Chinese)潘秋娟,杨艳,常亮,等.400~1400 nm脉冲激光辐射人眼安全分析[J].激光与红外,2010,40(8):821-824.
[10]Lindner S,Pellegrini S,Henrion Y,et al.A High-PDE,backside-iiluminated SPAD in 65/40-nm 3D IC CMOSpixel with cascoded passive quenching and active recharge[J].IEEE Electron Device Letters,2017,38(11):1547-1550.
[11]Veerappan C,Charbon E.A low dark count p-i-n diode based SPAD in CMOS technology[J].IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices,2015,63(1):65-71.(in Chinese)
[12]村尾英治,佐佐木英行,加治木正欲,等.汽车用激光雷达[J].红外,1995,(6):8-14.
[13]Bronzi D,Zou Y,Villa F,et al.Automotive three-dimensional vision through a single-photon counting SPAD camera[J].IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems,2016,17(3):782-795.
[14]Lussana R,Villa F,Dalla M A,et al.Enhanced singlephoton time-of-flight 3D ranging[J].Optics Express,2015,23(19):24962.
[15]Villa F,Lussana R,Bronzi D,et al.CMOS imager with1024 SPADs and TDCs for single-photon timing and 3-Dtime-of-flight[J].IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics,2014,20(6):364-373.
[16]Villa F,Markovic B,Bronzi D,et al.SPAD detector for long-distance 3D ranging with sub-nanosecond TDC[C]//Photonics Conference,IEEE,2012:24-25.
[17]Acconcia G,Crotti M,Antonioli S,et al.High performance time-to-amplitude converter array[C]//Time-To-Digital Converters,IEEE,2013:1-5.
[18]Mora A D,Tosi A,Zappa F,et al.Fast-gated single-photon avalanche diode for Wide dynamic range near infrared spectroscopy[J].IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics,2010,16(4):1023-1030.
[19]Pancheri L,Massari N,Stoppa D.SPAD image sensor with analog counting pixel for time-resolved fluorescence detection[J].IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices,2013,60(10):3442-3449.
[20]Gersbach M,Maruyama Y,Labonne E,et al.A parallel 32×32 time-to-digital converter array fabricated in a130 nm imaging CMOS technology[C]//ESSCIRC,2009.ESSCIRC'09.Proceedings of IEEE,2009:196-199.
[21]Pavia J M,Scandini M,Lindner S,et al.A 1×400 backside-iiluminated SPAD sensor with 49.7 ps resolution,30 p J/sample TDCs fabricated in 3D CMOS technology for near-infrared optical tomography[J].IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits,2015,50(10):2406-2418.
[22]C.Niclass,A.Rochas,Besse,et al.Design and characterization of a CMOS 3-D image sensor based on single photon avalanche diodes[J].IEEE J.Solid-State Circ.,2005,40(9):1847-1854.
[23]Niclass C,Soga M,Matsubara H,et al.A 100-m range 10-frame/s 340×96-pixel time-of-flight depth sensor in 0.18μm CMOS[J].IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits,2013,48(2):559-572.
[24]Niclass C,Rochas A,Besse P A,et al.A CMOS 3D camera with millimetric depth resolution[C]//Custom Integrated Circuits Conference,Proceedings of the IEEE,2004:705-708.
[25]Erdogan A T,Walker R,Finlayson N,et al.A 16.5 giga events/s 1024×8 SPAD line sensor with per-pixel zoomable50ps-6.4ns/bin histogramming TDC[C]//VLSI Circuits,2017 Symposium on.IEEE,2017:C292-C293.
[26]Braga L H C,Gasparini L,Grant L,et al.An 8×16-pixel92kSPAD time-resolved sensor with on-pixel 64ps 12b TDC and 100MS/s real-time energy histogramming in0.13μm CIS technology for PET/MRI applications[C]//Solid-State Circuits Conference Digest of Technical Papers.IEEE,2013:486-487.
[27]ZHENG Ruitong,WU Guanhao.Pulsed one-dimensional unscanned laser radar system based on linear array APDdetector[J].Infrared and Laser Engineering,2012,41(1):96-100.(in Chinese)郑睿童,吴冠豪.基于线列APD探测器的脉冲式一维扫描激光雷达系统[J].红外与激光工程,2012,41(1):96-100.
[28]GONG Chimiao.Research on laser array reception signal acquisition and processing[D].Beijing University of Technology,2014.(in Chinese)龚驰邈.激光阵列接收信号采集与处理研究[D].北京:北京理工大学,2014.
[29]Zhou G,Zhou X,Yang J,et al.Flash lidar sensor using fiber-coupled APDs[J].IEEE Sensors Journal,2015,15(9):4758-4768.
[30]XU Zhengping,SHEN Honghai,YAO Yuan,et al.Direct ranging scanning laser active imaging verification system[J].Optical Precision Engineering,2016,24(2):251-259.(in Chinese)徐正平,沈宏海,姚园,等.直接测距型无扫描激光主动成像验证系统[J].光学精密工程,2016,24(2):251-259.