语言民族主义视野下的孟加拉国独立运动
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摘要
语言是民族身份的重要象征,往往和特定的民族相联系,民族语言的凝聚力能引导民族意识的觉醒,在民族主义和民族国家的形成中具有不可替代的作用。语言民族主义缘起于欧洲中世纪晚期,18世纪末到19世纪初期,真正意义上的近代语言民族主义在德国形成,并逐渐传播到了南亚地区,成为孟加拉民族解放运动的指导思想。巴基斯坦独立后,东翼孟加拉人被边缘化。1947～1956年,为争取政治权利和经济发展,孟加拉精英选择以母语为纽带增进民众的内聚力,发起了一场以语言保护为先导的民族主义运动。在此过程中,孟加拉语言民族主义的政治功效逐渐凸显,为构建统一的民族和国家认同奠定了基础。在语言民族主义的促生下,东西两翼的矛盾被彻底激化,1971年孟加拉国独立战争爆发,战争历时9个月,在印度大规模的军事干预下,东翼孟加拉人获得了独立。孟加拉人的独立运动缘起于语言民族主义,属于"分裂型"语言民族主义的分类,是巴基斯坦独立初期政策偏失的产物。孟加拉语言民族主义运动以母语运动的形式为特点,旨在谋求政治独立。对于多民族和多语言国家而言,语言政策的合理与否,直接影响到族际关系的和谐和统一民族国家的构建。
Language is an important symbol of national identity, often associated with a specific nation. The cohesion of national language can guide the awakening of national consciousness and play an irreplaceable role in the formation of nationalism and national state. Linguistic nationalism originated in the late medieval Europe. From the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century, the real modern linguistic nationalism was finally formed in Germany and gradually spread to South Asia, becoming the guiding ideology of the national liberation movement of Bangladesh. After the independence of Pakistan, the people of East Bengal were marginalized due to policy preferences. From 1947 to 1956, in order to fight for political rights and economic development, the East Bengal elites chose mother tongue as a link to enhance the cohesion of the people and launch a nationalist movement led by language protection. In this process, the political effect of linguistic nationalism in East Bengal gradually became prominent, which laid the foundation for building a unified nation and national identity. Under the promotion of linguistic nationalism, the contradiction between the East Bengal and West Bengal was thoroughly intensified. In 1971, the Bangladesh War of Independence broke out. The war lasted nine months, and East Bengal gained independence under India's massive military intervention. The war directly led to Pakistan being split in two, while India achieved its goal of weakening Pakistan and ensuring its leading position in South Asian geopolitics. The East Bengali independence movement originated from linguistic nationalism and belonged to the category of "split" linguistic nationalism, which was the product of policy deviation in the early period of Pakistan's independence. The Bangladeshi linguistic nationalism movement is characterized by a form of mother tongue movement, aiming at seeking political independence. For multi-ethnic and multi-lingual countries, the rationality of language policy directly affects the harmony of inter-ethnic relations and the construction of a unified nation-state.
Language is an important symbol of national identity, often associated with a specific nation. The cohesion of national language can guide the awakening of national consciousness and play an irreplaceable role in the formation of nationalism and national state. Linguistic nationalism originated in the late medieval Europe. From the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century, the real modern linguistic nationalism was finally formed in Germany and gradually spread to South Asia, becoming the guiding ideology of the national liberation movement of Bangladesh. After the independence of Pakistan, the people of East Bengal were marginalized due to policy preferences. From 1947 to 1956, in order to fight for political rights and economic development, the East Bengal elites chose mother tongue as a link to enhance the cohesion of the people and launch a nationalist movement led by language protection. In this process, the political effect of linguistic nationalism in East Bengal gradually became prominent, which laid the foundation for building a unified nation and national identity. Under the promotion of linguistic nationalism, the contradiction between the East Bengal and West Bengal was thoroughly intensified. In 1971, the Bangladesh War of Independence broke out. The war lasted nine months, and East Bengal gained independence under India's massive military intervention. The war directly led to Pakistan being split in two, while India achieved its goal of weakening Pakistan and ensuring its leading position in South Asian geopolitics. The East Bengali independence movement originated from linguistic nationalism and belonged to the category of "split" linguistic nationalism, which was the product of policy deviation in the early period of Pakistan's independence. The Bangladeshi linguistic nationalism movement is characterized by a form of mother tongue movement, aiming at seeking political independence. For multi-ethnic and multi-lingual countries, the rationality of language policy directly affects the harmony of inter-ethnic relations and the construction of a unified nation-state.
引文
(1) (英)埃里克·霍布斯鲍姆著,李金梅译:《民族与民族主义》,上海人民出版社2006年版,第94页。
(1)陈平:《语言民族主义:欧洲与中国》,《外语教学与研究》,2008年第1期,第5页。
(1)宁骚:《民族与国家:民族关系与民族政策的国际比较》,北京大学出版社1995年版,第94~95页。
(1) (英)安东尼·史密斯著,叶江译:《民族主义:理论、意识形态、历史(第二版)》,上海人民出版社2011年版,第101页。
(2)宁骚:《民族与国家:民族关系与民族政策的国际比较》,北京大学出版社1995年版,第209页。
(1)戴曼纯、朱宁燕:《语言民族主义的政治功能——以前南斯拉夫为例》,《欧洲研究》,2011年第2期,第118~119页。
(2)陈平:《语言民族主义:欧洲与中国》,《外语教学与研究》,2008年第1期,第8页。
(3)戴曼纯、朱宁燕:《语言民族主义的政治功能——以前南斯拉夫为例》,《欧洲研究》,2011年第2期,第120页。
(4)刘建:《列国志·孟加拉国》,社会科学文献出版社2010年版,第24页。
(5)A. K. M. Shahnawaz, Banglar Sanskriti Banglar Sobbhata(Culture and Civilization Bengal), Dhaka:Dibyaprakash, 2004, pp29~38.
(1)Zillur R. Khan,“March Movement of Bangladesh:Bengali Struggle for Political Power”, Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 33, No. 3, 1972, p292.
(2)Shahidullah Muhammad, Amader Bhasha Samassya, Dacca:Renaissance Publications, 1947, pp34~35.
(3)Hasan Zaheer, The Separation of East Pakistan-The Rise and Realization of Bengali Muslim Nationalism,Dhaka:The University Press Limited, 2001, p23.
(4)麦浪:《今日巴基斯坦》,世界知识出版社1957年版,第9页。
(1)G. W. Choudhury,“Bangladesh:Why It Happened”, International Affairs, Vol. 48, No.2, 1972, p243.
(2)Afroza Anwary,“Frame Alignment and the Dynamics of the National Language Movement of East Pakistan:1947-1956”, Journal of Asian History, Vol. 45, No. 1/2, 2011, p176.
(3)(荷)威廉·冯·申德尔著,李腾译:《孟加拉国史》,东方出版中心2015年版,第142页。
(4)Zillur R. Khan,“March Movement of Bangladesh:Bengali Struggle for Political Power”, Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 33, No. 3, 1972, p297.
(1)K. P. Misra,“Intra-State Imperialism:The Case of Pakistan”, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 9, No. 1,1972, p27.
(2)Rafiqul Islam,“The Bengali Language Movement and Emergence of Bangladesh”, Contributions to Asian Studies, Vol. 11, 1978, p144.
(1)Jinnah Mohamed Ali, Speeches as Governor General of Pakistan1947-48, Karachi:Pakistan Publications,1948, p95.
(2)Rafiqul Islam,“The Bengali Language Movement and Emergence of Bangladesh”, Contributions to Asian Studies, Vol. 11, 1978, p145.
(3)Rafiqul Islam,“The Bengali Language Movement and Emergence of Bangladesh”, Contributions to Asian Studies, Vol. 11, 1978, p146.
(1)Rafiqul Islam,“The Bengali Language Movement and Emergence of Bangladesh”, Contributions to Asian Studies, Vol. 11, 1978, p147.
(2)Musa Monsur(ed.), Bangladesh, Dacca:Department of Bengali, Dacca University, 1974, pp402~405.
(3)The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 1956, Karachi:Feroze Sons, 1956, p14.
(1)伊夫提哈尔·H·马里克著,张文涛译:《巴基斯坦史》,中国大百科全书出版社2010年版,第155页。
(2) G. W. Choudhury,“Bangladesh:Why It Happened”, International Affairs, Vol. 48, No.2, 1972, p244.
(1)G. W. Choudhury,“Bangladesh:Why It Happened”, International Affairs, Vol. 48, No.2, 1972,p246.
(2)六点计划的内容即,穆吉布提出的为东孟加拉人社会建立公平正义,结束西巴政府对东孟加拉地区的剥削。
(3)Zillur R. Khan,“March Movement of Bangladesh:Bengali Struggle for Political Power”, Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 33, No. 3, 1972, pp299~300.
(1)Zillur R. Khan,“March Movement of Bangladesh:Bengali Struggle for Political Power”, Indian Journal of Political Science,p318.
(2)Sarmila Bose,“Anatomy of Violence:Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 40, No. 41, 2005, p4465.
(3)Ibid,p4465.
(1)(荷)威廉·冯·申德尔著,李腾译:《孟加拉国史》,东方出版中心2015年版,第166页。
(2)林太:《印度通史》,上海社会科学院出版社2012年版,第409页。
(1)Thomas W. Oliver, The United Nations in Bangladesh, Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1978, p16.
(2)Rudolph J. Rummel, Statistics of Democide:Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900, Munster:Lit Verlag,1998, pp153~163.
(3)刘建:《列国志·孟加拉国》,社会科学文献出版社2010年版,第79页。
(4)(荷)威廉·冯·申德尔著,李腾译:《孟加拉国史》,东方出版中心2015年版,第182页。
(5)Ian Talbot, Pakistan:A Modern History, London:Hurst, 1988, p202.
(6)张威:《1971年南亚危机对南亚地缘政治格局的影响析论》,《广西社会科学》,2012年第5期,第108~109页。
(7)Navine Murshid,“India's Role in Bangladesh's War of Independence:Humanitarianism or Selfinterest?”Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 46, No. 52, pp53~54.
(8)林太:《印度通史》,上海社会科学院出版社2012年版,第409页。
(1)前南斯拉夫语言争端激烈,民族冲突频繁,1992年南斯拉夫解体,分裂为包括南联盟、克罗地亚、斯洛文尼亚、马其顿和波斯尼亚—黑塞哥维那在内的不同国家。
(2)印度独立以来,语言争端频发,以语言为基础重新划定邦界的运动曾席卷全国:包括1953年泰卢固族的语言运动导致的以泰卢固语为基础的安得拉邦的成立。该事件推动印度政府于1956年以语言为基础对10个邦的边界作了调整,并根据语言的不同新建了喀拉拉邦、卡纳塔克邦和中央邦。之后孟买邦、古吉拉特邦和马哈拉施特拉邦建立。1966年旁遮普邦平原各县成立了通行印地语的哈里亚纳邦,使用印地语的山区被并入喜马偕尔邦,余下的通行旁遮普语的地区仍称作旁遮普邦。转引自宁骚:《民族与国家:民族关系与民族政策的国际比较》,北京大学出版社1995年版,第208页。
(3)斯里兰卡持续多年的民族冲突指泰米尔语与僧伽罗语之争,泰米尔人要求政府给予泰米尔语与僧伽罗语同等国语地位。
(1)陈平:《语言民族主义:欧洲与中国》,《外语教学与研究》,2008年第1期,第5页。
(1)宁骚:《民族与国家:民族关系与民族政策的国际比较》,北京大学出版社1995年版,第94~95页。
(1) (英)安东尼·史密斯著,叶江译:《民族主义:理论、意识形态、历史(第二版)》,上海人民出版社2011年版,第101页。
(2)宁骚:《民族与国家:民族关系与民族政策的国际比较》,北京大学出版社1995年版,第209页。
(1)戴曼纯、朱宁燕:《语言民族主义的政治功能——以前南斯拉夫为例》,《欧洲研究》,2011年第2期,第118~119页。
(2)陈平:《语言民族主义:欧洲与中国》,《外语教学与研究》,2008年第1期,第8页。
(3)戴曼纯、朱宁燕:《语言民族主义的政治功能——以前南斯拉夫为例》,《欧洲研究》,2011年第2期,第120页。
(4)刘建:《列国志·孟加拉国》,社会科学文献出版社2010年版,第24页。
(5)A. K. M. Shahnawaz, Banglar Sanskriti Banglar Sobbhata(Culture and Civilization Bengal), Dhaka:Dibyaprakash, 2004, pp29~38.
(1)Zillur R. Khan,“March Movement of Bangladesh:Bengali Struggle for Political Power”, Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 33, No. 3, 1972, p292.
(2)Shahidullah Muhammad, Amader Bhasha Samassya, Dacca:Renaissance Publications, 1947, pp34~35.
(3)Hasan Zaheer, The Separation of East Pakistan-The Rise and Realization of Bengali Muslim Nationalism,Dhaka:The University Press Limited, 2001, p23.
(4)麦浪:《今日巴基斯坦》,世界知识出版社1957年版,第9页。
(1)G. W. Choudhury,“Bangladesh:Why It Happened”, International Affairs, Vol. 48, No.2, 1972, p243.
(2)Afroza Anwary,“Frame Alignment and the Dynamics of the National Language Movement of East Pakistan:1947-1956”, Journal of Asian History, Vol. 45, No. 1/2, 2011, p176.
(3)(荷)威廉·冯·申德尔著,李腾译:《孟加拉国史》,东方出版中心2015年版,第142页。
(4)Zillur R. Khan,“March Movement of Bangladesh:Bengali Struggle for Political Power”, Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 33, No. 3, 1972, p297.
(1)K. P. Misra,“Intra-State Imperialism:The Case of Pakistan”, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 9, No. 1,1972, p27.
(2)Rafiqul Islam,“The Bengali Language Movement and Emergence of Bangladesh”, Contributions to Asian Studies, Vol. 11, 1978, p144.
(1)Jinnah Mohamed Ali, Speeches as Governor General of Pakistan1947-48, Karachi:Pakistan Publications,1948, p95.
(2)Rafiqul Islam,“The Bengali Language Movement and Emergence of Bangladesh”, Contributions to Asian Studies, Vol. 11, 1978, p145.
(3)Rafiqul Islam,“The Bengali Language Movement and Emergence of Bangladesh”, Contributions to Asian Studies, Vol. 11, 1978, p146.
(1)Rafiqul Islam,“The Bengali Language Movement and Emergence of Bangladesh”, Contributions to Asian Studies, Vol. 11, 1978, p147.
(2)Musa Monsur(ed.), Bangladesh, Dacca:Department of Bengali, Dacca University, 1974, pp402~405.
(3)The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 1956, Karachi:Feroze Sons, 1956, p14.
(1)伊夫提哈尔·H·马里克著,张文涛译:《巴基斯坦史》,中国大百科全书出版社2010年版,第155页。
(2) G. W. Choudhury,“Bangladesh:Why It Happened”, International Affairs, Vol. 48, No.2, 1972, p244.
(1)G. W. Choudhury,“Bangladesh:Why It Happened”, International Affairs, Vol. 48, No.2, 1972,p246.
(2)六点计划的内容即,穆吉布提出的为东孟加拉人社会建立公平正义,结束西巴政府对东孟加拉地区的剥削。
(3)Zillur R. Khan,“March Movement of Bangladesh:Bengali Struggle for Political Power”, Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 33, No. 3, 1972, pp299~300.
(1)Zillur R. Khan,“March Movement of Bangladesh:Bengali Struggle for Political Power”, Indian Journal of Political Science,p318.
(2)Sarmila Bose,“Anatomy of Violence:Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 40, No. 41, 2005, p4465.
(3)Ibid,p4465.
(1)(荷)威廉·冯·申德尔著,李腾译:《孟加拉国史》,东方出版中心2015年版,第166页。
(2)林太:《印度通史》,上海社会科学院出版社2012年版,第409页。
(1)Thomas W. Oliver, The United Nations in Bangladesh, Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1978, p16.
(2)Rudolph J. Rummel, Statistics of Democide:Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900, Munster:Lit Verlag,1998, pp153~163.
(3)刘建:《列国志·孟加拉国》,社会科学文献出版社2010年版,第79页。
(4)(荷)威廉·冯·申德尔著,李腾译:《孟加拉国史》,东方出版中心2015年版,第182页。
(5)Ian Talbot, Pakistan:A Modern History, London:Hurst, 1988, p202.
(6)张威:《1971年南亚危机对南亚地缘政治格局的影响析论》,《广西社会科学》,2012年第5期,第108~109页。
(7)Navine Murshid,“India's Role in Bangladesh's War of Independence:Humanitarianism or Selfinterest?”Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 46, No. 52, pp53~54.
(8)林太:《印度通史》,上海社会科学院出版社2012年版,第409页。
(1)前南斯拉夫语言争端激烈,民族冲突频繁,1992年南斯拉夫解体,分裂为包括南联盟、克罗地亚、斯洛文尼亚、马其顿和波斯尼亚—黑塞哥维那在内的不同国家。
(2)印度独立以来,语言争端频发,以语言为基础重新划定邦界的运动曾席卷全国:包括1953年泰卢固族的语言运动导致的以泰卢固语为基础的安得拉邦的成立。该事件推动印度政府于1956年以语言为基础对10个邦的边界作了调整,并根据语言的不同新建了喀拉拉邦、卡纳塔克邦和中央邦。之后孟买邦、古吉拉特邦和马哈拉施特拉邦建立。1966年旁遮普邦平原各县成立了通行印地语的哈里亚纳邦,使用印地语的山区被并入喜马偕尔邦,余下的通行旁遮普语的地区仍称作旁遮普邦。转引自宁骚:《民族与国家:民族关系与民族政策的国际比较》,北京大学出版社1995年版,第208页。
(3)斯里兰卡持续多年的民族冲突指泰米尔语与僧伽罗语之争,泰米尔人要求政府给予泰米尔语与僧伽罗语同等国语地位。