在线环境下项目化学习支架探究
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摘要
支架是在线环境下项目化学习的重要干预手段,是实现学习者认知图式建构与自动化的有效途径。项目化学习支架的设计以认知图式和认知负荷理论为基础,以项目化学习的任务特点和学习者特征为依据。项目化学习具有任务高交互性和学习者认知图式储备不足的特点,学习者在线学习过程中面临总体认知负荷超载且相关认知负荷不足的问题。项目化教学支架的提供应以降低外部认知负荷、分解内部认知负荷和适当增加相关认知负荷为原则,从项目化学习设计和项目化学习过程支持两个维度设计学习支架,静态支架与动态支架相结合;同时,整合教师、技术两种外部学习支架和同伴这一内部学习支架,技术主要提供规则性较强的支架,教师和同伴则侧重从复杂交流和专家思考方面提供支架,三种来源的支架相互补充、有机统一,形成以教师为主导、同伴为主体、技术为辅助的项目化学习支架体系。
Scaffold is an important teaching intervention of online project-based learning for the construction and automation of learners' cognitive schema. The design of project-based learning scaffold is based on the theory of cognitive schema and cognitive load,and the task characteristics of project-based learning and learners' characteristics. Project-based learning has the task of high interactivity and the learner is lack in cognitive schemata,so learners are under difficult of cognitive load and the shortage of related cognitive load during the process of online learning. The design principles of project-based learning scaffold is to reduce the external cognitive load,decompose internal cognitive load and appropriately increase the related cognitive load. Scaffold of project-based learning combines static scaffold in instruction design and the dynamic scaffold in learning process and integrates the external scaffold sources of teachers and technology and the internal scaffold source of peers. Technology mainly provides scaffold of strong regularity,and teachers and peers focuse on providing scaffold of complex communication and experts think. Three sources of scaffold which interconnect and complement to each other form a scaffold system with teachers as the leading scaffold,peers as the main scaffold and technology as auxiliary scaffold.
Scaffold is an important teaching intervention of online project-based learning for the construction and automation of learners' cognitive schema. The design of project-based learning scaffold is based on the theory of cognitive schema and cognitive load,and the task characteristics of project-based learning and learners' characteristics. Project-based learning has the task of high interactivity and the learner is lack in cognitive schemata,so learners are under difficult of cognitive load and the shortage of related cognitive load during the process of online learning. The design principles of project-based learning scaffold is to reduce the external cognitive load,decompose internal cognitive load and appropriately increase the related cognitive load. Scaffold of project-based learning combines static scaffold in instruction design and the dynamic scaffold in learning process and integrates the external scaffold sources of teachers and technology and the internal scaffold source of peers. Technology mainly provides scaffold of strong regularity,and teachers and peers focuse on providing scaffold of complex communication and experts think. Three sources of scaffold which interconnect and complement to each other form a scaffold system with teachers as the leading scaffold,peers as the main scaffold and technology as auxiliary scaffold.
引文
[1][英]巴索·伯恩斯坦,著.阶级、符码与控制第三卷:教育传递理论之建构[M].王瑞贤,译注.台北:国科会经典译注计划,2007.
[2]Wood D,Bruner J S,Ross G. The role of tutoring in problem solving[J]. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry,1976,17(2):89-100.
[3]Stone C A. Should we salvage the scaffolding metaphor[J].Journal of Learning Disabilities,1998,31(4):409-413.
[4]Stone C A. The metaphor of scaffolding its utility for the field of learning disabilities[J]. Journal of learning disabilities,1998,31(4):344-364.
[5]Collins A,Brown J S,Newman S E. Cognitive apprenticeship:Teaching the crafts of reading,writing,and mathematics[J]. Knowing,learning and instruction:Essays in honor of Robert Glaser,1989(18):32-42.
[6]Collins A. Cognitive apprenticeship and instructional technology:BBN-R-6899[R]. Cambridge:BBN Systems and Technologies Corporation,1988.
[7][美]格里诺·J. G著.活动中的学习//基思·索耶. R.剑桥学习科学手册[M].徐晓东,译.北京:教育科学出版社,2010.
[8]Van de pol J,Volman M,Beishuizen J. Scaffolding in teacher-student interaction:A decade of research[J]. Educational Psychology Review,2010,22(3):271-296.
[9]Pea R D. The social and technological dimensions of scaffolding and related theoretical concepts for learning,education and human activity[J]. The journal of the learning sciences,2004,13(3):423-451.
[10]Bruner J S. From communication to language—A psychological perspective[J]. Cognition,1975,3(3):255-287.
[11]Puntambekar S,Hubscher R. Tools for scaffolding students in a complex learning environment:What have we gained and what have we missed[J]. Educational psychologist,2005,40(1):1-12.
[12]Brown A L,Campione J C. Psychological theory and the design of innovative learning environments:On procedures,principles,and systems[M]. Appleton:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,1996.
[13]Reiser B J. Scaffolding complex learning:The mechanisms of structuring and problematizing student work[J]. The Journal of the Learning Sciences,2004,13(3):273-304.
[14][加]斯洛塔·J. D,[美]林·M.课堂环境中基于网络探究的科学教育[M].赵建华,译.上海:华东师范大学出版社,2015.
[15]Quintana C,Eng J,Carra A,et al. Symphony:A case study in extending learner-centered design through process space analysis//Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems[C]. ACM,1999:473-480.
[16]Hmelo C E,Guzdial M. Of black and glass boxes:Scaffolding for doing and learning//Proceedings of the 1996 international conference on Learning sciences[C]. International Society of the Learning Sciences,1996:128-134.
[17]Vygotsky L S. Interaction between learning and development[J]. Readings on the development of children,1978,23(3):34-41.
[18]Van Merrienboer J J G,Sweller J. Cognitive load theory and complex learning:Recent developments and future directions[J]. Educational psychology review,2005,17(2):147-177.
[19]Miller G A. The magical number seven,plus or minus two:some limits on our capacity for processing information[J]. Psychological Review,1956,63(2):81-97.
[20]Sweller J,Van Merrienboer J J G,Paas F G W C. Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design[J]. Educational Psychology Review,1998,10(3):251-296.
[21]李梅.认知视角下的项目化学习解析[J].电化教育研究,2017(11):102-107.
[22]Lepper M R,Woolverton M,Mumme D L,et al. Motivational techniques of expert human tutors:Lessons for the design of computerbased tutors//Susanne P Lajoie,Sharon J Derry. Computers as cognitive tools[C]. London:Routledge,1993:75-105.
[23]Ge X,Land S M. Scaffolding students’s problem-solving processes in an ill-structured task using question prompts and peer interactions[J]. Educational technology research and development,2003,51(1):21-38.
[24]Van Roojj S W. Scaffolding project-based learning with the project management body of knowledge(PMBOK)[J]. Computers&Education,2009,52(1):210-219.
[25][美]布鲁斯·乔伊斯,玛莎·韦尔,艾米莉·卡尔霍恩,著.教学模式[M].兰英,等译.北京:中国人民大学出版社,2014.
[26]Karasavvidis I. Distributed cognition and educational practice[J]. Journal of interactive learning research,2002,13(1):11.
[27][瑞士]皮亚杰.发生认识论[M].范祖珠,译.北京:商务印书馆,1990.
[28]King A. Verbal interaction and problem-solving within computer-assisted cooperative learning groups[J]. Journal of Educational Computing Research,1989,5(1):1-15.
[29]King A. Effects of training in strategic questioning on children’s problem-solving performance[J]. Journal of Educational Psychology,1991,83(3):307-317.
[30]King A,Rosenshine B. Effects of guided cooperative questioning on children’s knowledge construction[J]. The Journal of Experimental Education,1993,61(2):127-148.
[31]Webb N M. Group composition,group interaction,and achievement in cooperative small groups[J]. Journal of Educational Psychology,1982,74(4):475-484.
[32]Webb N M. Peer interaction and learning in small groups[J].International Journal of Educational research,1989,13(1):21-39.
[33]Topping K. Peer assessment between students in colleges and universities[J]. Review of educational Research,1998,68(3):249-276.
[34]Hou H T,Chang K E,Sung Y T. An analysis of peer assessment online discussions within a course that uses project-based learning[J]. Interactive learning environments,2007,15(3):237-251.
[35]Levy F,Murnane R J. The new division of labor:How computers are creating the next job market[M]. Princeton:Princeton University Press,2012.
[36]张剑平,陈仕品,张家华.网络学习及其适应性学习支持系统研究[M].北京:科学出版社,2010.
(1)统整型课程:课程内容处于一种开放关系的课程,知识之间的界限模糊,教师对学生的控制减弱。在完全统整型的课程里,教学没有固定时段,是一种共同的教学、共同的考试模式以及共同的教学活动。
(2)方向维持指保持学习目标并维持学习者对特定目标的追求;降低自由度是指具体化学习者需要掌握但还不能实施的任务,使其简单化;结构化认知是指根据认知的连续性特点,限制问题空间,将任务分解为具有内在逻辑性的子任务体系。
(3)引自谢维和在第二届学习科学与在线教育学术研讨会上的发言“论在线教育的学习基础”。时间连续性,减少认知活动因再次激活所需要的认知资源;经验连续性,确保新的认知材料与学习者已有的经验之间的关联;反思连续性,是指认知活动与元认知活动之间的内在联系,体现为内部认知结构的调整与新知识的获取之间的连续性,即学与思的关系,“学而不思则惘,思而不学则怠”,“学”与“思”相互交织,相互衔接,有机作用。
(4)《论语》。
(5)《学记》。
[2]Wood D,Bruner J S,Ross G. The role of tutoring in problem solving[J]. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry,1976,17(2):89-100.
[3]Stone C A. Should we salvage the scaffolding metaphor[J].Journal of Learning Disabilities,1998,31(4):409-413.
[4]Stone C A. The metaphor of scaffolding its utility for the field of learning disabilities[J]. Journal of learning disabilities,1998,31(4):344-364.
[5]Collins A,Brown J S,Newman S E. Cognitive apprenticeship:Teaching the crafts of reading,writing,and mathematics[J]. Knowing,learning and instruction:Essays in honor of Robert Glaser,1989(18):32-42.
[6]Collins A. Cognitive apprenticeship and instructional technology:BBN-R-6899[R]. Cambridge:BBN Systems and Technologies Corporation,1988.
[7][美]格里诺·J. G著.活动中的学习//基思·索耶. R.剑桥学习科学手册[M].徐晓东,译.北京:教育科学出版社,2010.
[8]Van de pol J,Volman M,Beishuizen J. Scaffolding in teacher-student interaction:A decade of research[J]. Educational Psychology Review,2010,22(3):271-296.
[9]Pea R D. The social and technological dimensions of scaffolding and related theoretical concepts for learning,education and human activity[J]. The journal of the learning sciences,2004,13(3):423-451.
[10]Bruner J S. From communication to language—A psychological perspective[J]. Cognition,1975,3(3):255-287.
[11]Puntambekar S,Hubscher R. Tools for scaffolding students in a complex learning environment:What have we gained and what have we missed[J]. Educational psychologist,2005,40(1):1-12.
[12]Brown A L,Campione J C. Psychological theory and the design of innovative learning environments:On procedures,principles,and systems[M]. Appleton:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,1996.
[13]Reiser B J. Scaffolding complex learning:The mechanisms of structuring and problematizing student work[J]. The Journal of the Learning Sciences,2004,13(3):273-304.
[14][加]斯洛塔·J. D,[美]林·M.课堂环境中基于网络探究的科学教育[M].赵建华,译.上海:华东师范大学出版社,2015.
[15]Quintana C,Eng J,Carra A,et al. Symphony:A case study in extending learner-centered design through process space analysis//Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems[C]. ACM,1999:473-480.
[16]Hmelo C E,Guzdial M. Of black and glass boxes:Scaffolding for doing and learning//Proceedings of the 1996 international conference on Learning sciences[C]. International Society of the Learning Sciences,1996:128-134.
[17]Vygotsky L S. Interaction between learning and development[J]. Readings on the development of children,1978,23(3):34-41.
[18]Van Merrienboer J J G,Sweller J. Cognitive load theory and complex learning:Recent developments and future directions[J]. Educational psychology review,2005,17(2):147-177.
[19]Miller G A. The magical number seven,plus or minus two:some limits on our capacity for processing information[J]. Psychological Review,1956,63(2):81-97.
[20]Sweller J,Van Merrienboer J J G,Paas F G W C. Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design[J]. Educational Psychology Review,1998,10(3):251-296.
[21]李梅.认知视角下的项目化学习解析[J].电化教育研究,2017(11):102-107.
[22]Lepper M R,Woolverton M,Mumme D L,et al. Motivational techniques of expert human tutors:Lessons for the design of computerbased tutors//Susanne P Lajoie,Sharon J Derry. Computers as cognitive tools[C]. London:Routledge,1993:75-105.
[23]Ge X,Land S M. Scaffolding students’s problem-solving processes in an ill-structured task using question prompts and peer interactions[J]. Educational technology research and development,2003,51(1):21-38.
[24]Van Roojj S W. Scaffolding project-based learning with the project management body of knowledge(PMBOK)[J]. Computers&Education,2009,52(1):210-219.
[25][美]布鲁斯·乔伊斯,玛莎·韦尔,艾米莉·卡尔霍恩,著.教学模式[M].兰英,等译.北京:中国人民大学出版社,2014.
[26]Karasavvidis I. Distributed cognition and educational practice[J]. Journal of interactive learning research,2002,13(1):11.
[27][瑞士]皮亚杰.发生认识论[M].范祖珠,译.北京:商务印书馆,1990.
[28]King A. Verbal interaction and problem-solving within computer-assisted cooperative learning groups[J]. Journal of Educational Computing Research,1989,5(1):1-15.
[29]King A. Effects of training in strategic questioning on children’s problem-solving performance[J]. Journal of Educational Psychology,1991,83(3):307-317.
[30]King A,Rosenshine B. Effects of guided cooperative questioning on children’s knowledge construction[J]. The Journal of Experimental Education,1993,61(2):127-148.
[31]Webb N M. Group composition,group interaction,and achievement in cooperative small groups[J]. Journal of Educational Psychology,1982,74(4):475-484.
[32]Webb N M. Peer interaction and learning in small groups[J].International Journal of Educational research,1989,13(1):21-39.
[33]Topping K. Peer assessment between students in colleges and universities[J]. Review of educational Research,1998,68(3):249-276.
[34]Hou H T,Chang K E,Sung Y T. An analysis of peer assessment online discussions within a course that uses project-based learning[J]. Interactive learning environments,2007,15(3):237-251.
[35]Levy F,Murnane R J. The new division of labor:How computers are creating the next job market[M]. Princeton:Princeton University Press,2012.
[36]张剑平,陈仕品,张家华.网络学习及其适应性学习支持系统研究[M].北京:科学出版社,2010.
(1)统整型课程:课程内容处于一种开放关系的课程,知识之间的界限模糊,教师对学生的控制减弱。在完全统整型的课程里,教学没有固定时段,是一种共同的教学、共同的考试模式以及共同的教学活动。
(2)方向维持指保持学习目标并维持学习者对特定目标的追求;降低自由度是指具体化学习者需要掌握但还不能实施的任务,使其简单化;结构化认知是指根据认知的连续性特点,限制问题空间,将任务分解为具有内在逻辑性的子任务体系。
(3)引自谢维和在第二届学习科学与在线教育学术研讨会上的发言“论在线教育的学习基础”。时间连续性,减少认知活动因再次激活所需要的认知资源;经验连续性,确保新的认知材料与学习者已有的经验之间的关联;反思连续性,是指认知活动与元认知活动之间的内在联系,体现为内部认知结构的调整与新知识的获取之间的连续性,即学与思的关系,“学而不思则惘,思而不学则怠”,“学”与“思”相互交织,相互衔接,有机作用。
(4)《论语》。
(5)《学记》。