循证分析视角下的公共价值衡量与创造:一项对代表性国家的因子与聚类研究
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摘要
创造价值、持续创新、改变世界,是企业家和公司的使命。同样,通过制度和政策创新,政府和公共部门也可以创造包括繁荣、健康、教育、稳定、民主、自由、法治、和谐、幸福等在内的公共价值,改变世界并让世界变得更加美好。以利润为基础的经济价值是多元公共价值的一种,政府必须在多元公共价值之间保持平衡,长期忽略某项公共价值是导致公共管理失败的根源。循证分析可以帮助政府明晰蕴含在社会各领域的多元公共价值之间的复杂关联,减少公共管理失败的风险。对27项公共价值指标和81个国家的因子和聚类分析发现,经济价值在多元公共价值中处于基础地位,不同国家存在多种不同的公共价值组合与创造模式。国家之间的竞争,可以被视为国家在各项公共价值保护与创造上的竞争。一个国家要超越他国,就必须创造比他国更大量、更优质的公共价值。
Creating values and doing innovations are the task of entrepreneurs and corporations.Similarly,through institutional and policy innovations,governments and public sectors can also create public values such as prosperity,health,education,security,democracy,freedom,rule of law,harmony,and happiness,change the world and make the world better.Economic value based upon profit and efficiency is the main content of public value,and the government should create public values and keep balance among them.Ignoring some public values in the long run would cause development failure.Evidence-based analysis could help government clarify the complex relationship among public values in social spheres and reduce the risk of development failure.By factor and cluster analyses on 81 countries and 27 public value indicators,this research finds that the economic value is the base of other public values,and there are different types of public value combination among those countries.The competition among countries could be regarded as that of public value protecting and creating.If a country aims to overtake other countries,it must create more and better public values.
Creating values and doing innovations are the task of entrepreneurs and corporations.Similarly,through institutional and policy innovations,governments and public sectors can also create public values such as prosperity,health,education,security,democracy,freedom,rule of law,harmony,and happiness,change the world and make the world better.Economic value based upon profit and efficiency is the main content of public value,and the government should create public values and keep balance among them.Ignoring some public values in the long run would cause development failure.Evidence-based analysis could help government clarify the complex relationship among public values in social spheres and reduce the risk of development failure.By factor and cluster analyses on 81 countries and 27 public value indicators,this research finds that the economic value is the base of other public values,and there are different types of public value combination among those countries.The competition among countries could be regarded as that of public value protecting and creating.If a country aims to overtake other countries,it must create more and better public values.
引文
[1]熊彼特.资本主义、社会主义与民主[M].北京:商务印书馆,1999:144- 151.
[2]马克·穆尔.创造公共价值:政府战略管理[M].北京:商务印书馆,2016:22- 24.
[3]MOORE M,KHAGRAM S.On creating public value:Shat business might learn from government about strategic management [EB/OL].[2018- 10- 10].Working Paper No.3,Harvard University.https://sites.hks.harvard.edu/m-rcbg/CSRI/publications/workingpaper_3_moore_khagram.pdf,2004.
[4]BERGER-WALLISER G,SCOTT I.Redefining corporate social responsibility in an era of globalization and regulatory hardening[J].American Business Law Journal,2018,55(1):167- 218.
[5]BECK J?RGENSEN T,BOZEMAN B.Public values:An inventory[J].Administration & Society,2007,39 (3):354- 381.
[6]BRYSON J M,CROSBY B C.,BLOOMBERG L.Public value governance:Moving beyond traditional public administration and the new public management[J].Public Administration Review,2014,74(4):445- 456.
[7]何艳玲.公共价值管理:一个新的公共行政学范式[J].政治学研究,2009,(06):62- 68.
[8]MEYNHARDT T.Public value:Turning a conceptual framework into a scorecard[M]//BRYSON J M,CROSBY B,BLOOMBERG L.Public Value and Public Administration.Washington,DC:Georgetown University Press,2015:147- 169.
[9]ROKEACH M.The nature of human values[M].New York:The Free Press,1973:10- 12.
[10]INGLEHART R F.Changing values among western publics from 1970 to 2006[J].West European Politics,2008,31(1):130- 146.
[11]VRANGB?K K.Public sector values in Denmark:A survey analysis[J].International Journal of Public Administration,2009,32(6):508- 535.
[12]BOZEMAN B,JOHNSON J.The political economy of public values:A case for the public sphere and progressive opportunity[J].American Review of Public Administration,2015,45(1):61- 85.
[13]WANG B.CHRISTENSEN T.The open public value account and comprehensive social development:An assessment of China and the United States[J].Administration & Society,2017,49(6):852- 881.
[14]BOZEMAN B.All organizations are public.Bridging public and private organizational theories[M].San Francisco:Jossey-Bass,1987:22- 25.
[15]HAQUE M S.The diminishing publicness of public service under the current mode of governance[J].Public Administration Review,2001,61(1):65- 82.
[16]ASSLAENDER M S,CURBACH J.The corporation as citizen?Towards a new understanding of corporate citizenship[J].Journal of Business Ethics,2014,120(4):541- 554.
[17]GRAAF D G,HUBERTS L,SMULDERS R.Coping with public value conflicts[J].Administration & Society,2016,48(9):1- 27.
[18]JACOBY W G.Is there a culture war?Conflicting value structures in American public opinion[J].American Political Science Review,2014,108(4):754- 771.
[19]ACKERMAN F,HEIZERLING L.Priceless:On knowing the price of everything and the value of nothing[M].New York:New Press,2005:3- 5.
[20]KAHNEMAN D,KRUEGER A B.Developments in the measurement of subjective well-being[J].Journal of Economic Perspectives,2006,20(1):3- 24.
[21]SMITH R,Sackett D.Physician,trialist,and teacher[J].British Medical Journal,2015,(May):26.
[22]BOAZ A.et al.Does evidence-based policy work?Learning from the UK experience[J].Evidence & Policy,2008,4(2):233- 253.
[23]CLARE S,CREED,I.F.Tracking wetland loss to improve evidence-based wetland policy learning and decision making[J].Wetlands Ecology and Management,2014,22(3):235- 245.
[24]周志忍,李乐.循证决策:国际实践、理论渊源与学术定位[M].中国行政管理,2013(12):23- 27.
[25]Economist Intelligence Unit.Democracy Index 2016[EB/OL].[2018- 2/20].https://www.eiu.com/public/topical_report.aspx?campaignid=DemocracyIndex2016.
(1)当然,如果考虑到企业家也需要在利润和社会责任之间进行选择和平衡,那么企业家其实也面临多元价值的冲突,管理伦理是管理者在现代社会面临的日益重要而紧迫的问题,具体可参见罗宾斯(2012)经典的管理学教科书。
(2)这句被广为引用的名言的英文原文是:Not everything that can be counted counts,and not everything that counts can be counted。
(3)在对中印两国进行比较研究时,笔者发现,印度的随地便溺是一个严重的社会问题,世界银行也对这一现象进行统计。2015年,印度的随地便溺人数占人口的百分比为39.8%,在所有192个有数据的国家中,排名倒数第14位,中国为1.5%,发达国家为0。数据来自世界银行数据库(https://data.worldbank.org/)。
(4)相对于更加可靠的民意调查数据,政治家有可能更加重视个别民众的意见。通常情况下,大样本数据优于个别案例,但“见一叶而知秋”也是决策者常见的获取证据并进行决策的方式,这两种方法应该相互验证。
(5)在全球范围内,不存在一个国家的人均GDP和全球竞争力指数GCI相互背离的情况,也就是说,不可能出现一个拥有很高人均GDP的国家,GCI会很低的情况。因此,富强的国家,必然拥有很高的人均GDP和GCI,贫弱的国家,不可能拥有很高的人均GDP和GCI。
(6)具体数据参看World Economic Forum,The Global Competitiveness Report 2015—2016,http://www.weforum.org/gcr,2018年2月20日。
(7)这两个排名基本相似,可以相互验证。由于涉及一些小国、岛国和地区是否列入排名,所以在不同的报道中,中国的排名可能稍有变动。
(8)仅高于乌干达(99美元)、尼泊尔(130美元)、几内亚比绍(138美元),低于卢旺达(244美元)、马里(248美元)、印度(263美元)、印度尼西亚(491美元)、尼日利亚(873美元)、巴西(1 939美元)等国家,美国为12 597美元,是中国的65倍。2016年,美国名义人均GDP为57 466美元,是中国8 123美元的7倍。
(9)和平指数PI和积极和平指数PPI是负向指标,即一个国家越和平,其指数值越小,因此,人均GDP与和平指数之间的相关系数为负。
(10)具体而言,2015—2016年,印度在DI、HFI、ROL上的全球排名为(32,87,66),优于中国的(132,141,80)。两国在CPI上的排名均为40分,并列69位。印度在PI和PPI上的排名(137,107),落后于中国(116,85);在HDI、HI、EPI上的排名(131,115,155),落后于中国(90,81,118),在基尼系数(35.2)和生态足迹(1.06)上优于中国的(42.2)和(3.59)。
(11)HPI由英国新经济基金编制,具体公式为:
(12)由于部分国家缺乏表1中部分指标的数据,剔除缺乏数据的国家,最后剩余81个国家在27项指标上均有数据。
(13)主要在附录5中的第9～10级层面分类,如果按照类似于发达国家的第4～5层面分类,发展中国家将会被划分为更多的类别。
[2]马克·穆尔.创造公共价值:政府战略管理[M].北京:商务印书馆,2016:22- 24.
[3]MOORE M,KHAGRAM S.On creating public value:Shat business might learn from government about strategic management [EB/OL].[2018- 10- 10].Working Paper No.3,Harvard University.https://sites.hks.harvard.edu/m-rcbg/CSRI/publications/workingpaper_3_moore_khagram.pdf,2004.
[4]BERGER-WALLISER G,SCOTT I.Redefining corporate social responsibility in an era of globalization and regulatory hardening[J].American Business Law Journal,2018,55(1):167- 218.
[5]BECK J?RGENSEN T,BOZEMAN B.Public values:An inventory[J].Administration & Society,2007,39 (3):354- 381.
[6]BRYSON J M,CROSBY B C.,BLOOMBERG L.Public value governance:Moving beyond traditional public administration and the new public management[J].Public Administration Review,2014,74(4):445- 456.
[7]何艳玲.公共价值管理:一个新的公共行政学范式[J].政治学研究,2009,(06):62- 68.
[8]MEYNHARDT T.Public value:Turning a conceptual framework into a scorecard[M]//BRYSON J M,CROSBY B,BLOOMBERG L.Public Value and Public Administration.Washington,DC:Georgetown University Press,2015:147- 169.
[9]ROKEACH M.The nature of human values[M].New York:The Free Press,1973:10- 12.
[10]INGLEHART R F.Changing values among western publics from 1970 to 2006[J].West European Politics,2008,31(1):130- 146.
[11]VRANGB?K K.Public sector values in Denmark:A survey analysis[J].International Journal of Public Administration,2009,32(6):508- 535.
[12]BOZEMAN B,JOHNSON J.The political economy of public values:A case for the public sphere and progressive opportunity[J].American Review of Public Administration,2015,45(1):61- 85.
[13]WANG B.CHRISTENSEN T.The open public value account and comprehensive social development:An assessment of China and the United States[J].Administration & Society,2017,49(6):852- 881.
[14]BOZEMAN B.All organizations are public.Bridging public and private organizational theories[M].San Francisco:Jossey-Bass,1987:22- 25.
[15]HAQUE M S.The diminishing publicness of public service under the current mode of governance[J].Public Administration Review,2001,61(1):65- 82.
[16]ASSLAENDER M S,CURBACH J.The corporation as citizen?Towards a new understanding of corporate citizenship[J].Journal of Business Ethics,2014,120(4):541- 554.
[17]GRAAF D G,HUBERTS L,SMULDERS R.Coping with public value conflicts[J].Administration & Society,2016,48(9):1- 27.
[18]JACOBY W G.Is there a culture war?Conflicting value structures in American public opinion[J].American Political Science Review,2014,108(4):754- 771.
[19]ACKERMAN F,HEIZERLING L.Priceless:On knowing the price of everything and the value of nothing[M].New York:New Press,2005:3- 5.
[20]KAHNEMAN D,KRUEGER A B.Developments in the measurement of subjective well-being[J].Journal of Economic Perspectives,2006,20(1):3- 24.
[21]SMITH R,Sackett D.Physician,trialist,and teacher[J].British Medical Journal,2015,(May):26.
[22]BOAZ A.et al.Does evidence-based policy work?Learning from the UK experience[J].Evidence & Policy,2008,4(2):233- 253.
[23]CLARE S,CREED,I.F.Tracking wetland loss to improve evidence-based wetland policy learning and decision making[J].Wetlands Ecology and Management,2014,22(3):235- 245.
[24]周志忍,李乐.循证决策:国际实践、理论渊源与学术定位[M].中国行政管理,2013(12):23- 27.
[25]Economist Intelligence Unit.Democracy Index 2016[EB/OL].[2018- 2/20].https://www.eiu.com/public/topical_report.aspx?campaignid=DemocracyIndex2016.
(1)当然,如果考虑到企业家也需要在利润和社会责任之间进行选择和平衡,那么企业家其实也面临多元价值的冲突,管理伦理是管理者在现代社会面临的日益重要而紧迫的问题,具体可参见罗宾斯(2012)经典的管理学教科书。
(2)这句被广为引用的名言的英文原文是:Not everything that can be counted counts,and not everything that counts can be counted。
(3)在对中印两国进行比较研究时,笔者发现,印度的随地便溺是一个严重的社会问题,世界银行也对这一现象进行统计。2015年,印度的随地便溺人数占人口的百分比为39.8%,在所有192个有数据的国家中,排名倒数第14位,中国为1.5%,发达国家为0。数据来自世界银行数据库(https://data.worldbank.org/)。
(4)相对于更加可靠的民意调查数据,政治家有可能更加重视个别民众的意见。通常情况下,大样本数据优于个别案例,但“见一叶而知秋”也是决策者常见的获取证据并进行决策的方式,这两种方法应该相互验证。
(5)在全球范围内,不存在一个国家的人均GDP和全球竞争力指数GCI相互背离的情况,也就是说,不可能出现一个拥有很高人均GDP的国家,GCI会很低的情况。因此,富强的国家,必然拥有很高的人均GDP和GCI,贫弱的国家,不可能拥有很高的人均GDP和GCI。
(6)具体数据参看World Economic Forum,The Global Competitiveness Report 2015—2016,http://www.weforum.org/gcr,2018年2月20日。
(7)这两个排名基本相似,可以相互验证。由于涉及一些小国、岛国和地区是否列入排名,所以在不同的报道中,中国的排名可能稍有变动。
(8)仅高于乌干达(99美元)、尼泊尔(130美元)、几内亚比绍(138美元),低于卢旺达(244美元)、马里(248美元)、印度(263美元)、印度尼西亚(491美元)、尼日利亚(873美元)、巴西(1 939美元)等国家,美国为12 597美元,是中国的65倍。2016年,美国名义人均GDP为57 466美元,是中国8 123美元的7倍。
(9)和平指数PI和积极和平指数PPI是负向指标,即一个国家越和平,其指数值越小,因此,人均GDP与和平指数之间的相关系数为负。
(10)具体而言,2015—2016年,印度在DI、HFI、ROL上的全球排名为(32,87,66),优于中国的(132,141,80)。两国在CPI上的排名均为40分,并列69位。印度在PI和PPI上的排名(137,107),落后于中国(116,85);在HDI、HI、EPI上的排名(131,115,155),落后于中国(90,81,118),在基尼系数(35.2)和生态足迹(1.06)上优于中国的(42.2)和(3.59)。
(11)HPI由英国新经济基金编制,具体公式为:
(12)由于部分国家缺乏表1中部分指标的数据,剔除缺乏数据的国家,最后剩余81个国家在27项指标上均有数据。
(13)主要在附录5中的第9～10级层面分类,如果按照类似于发达国家的第4～5层面分类,发展中国家将会被划分为更多的类别。