汉语方言的实验语音学研究旨趣
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摘要
汉语方言的语音研究中经常用到实验语音学,但却常常存在两大误解。其一,觉得实验语音学就是做测量,做统计分析的,将语言学范畴图解一下,好像就是实验语音学了;其二,觉得实验语音学是研究偏僻音类的,好像只有偏僻、稀奇的音才需要实验研究,以补"口耳之缺"。本文指出,实验语音学并不是音类的简单图解,语音学测量与统计必须有语言学意义上的考量。汉语方言的实验语音学研究就是以现在的语音科学实验手段探寻方言语音中的音类、音值区别的性质与规律:这些音的物理特性是什么?发音上是如何实现的?感知上有什么特点?而不是简单地验证记音的准确性,更不是为了寻找僻见的语音。汉语方言的实验语音学研究是语言学研究的一个独立的子学科,实验语音学测量所提供的语音细节为我们观察语音现象提供了新的方法论上的可能性。语音作为人类语言的物理载体具备了具体、变异的特性,不再像以往概念化似的那般抽象。语音的物理特性与语言学范畴之间并不存在简单对应的关系,而是交融着语音产生机制与语音感知特性的复杂映射关系。
Speech research is now overwhelmingly experimental, while the mainstream linguistics is either functional or formal in general. What is explicit is that people do physical or psychological measurements through experimental approaches; but what is implicit is that the philosophical base and methodology change as well in experimental approaches. In this connection,the fundamental unit of speech/language,i. e. phoneme or distinctive features in traditional terminology, is not an abstract assumption any more as in generalization-based approaches, but an object that can be studied from perspectives of production and/or perception. This paper demonstrates the difference between an experimental approach and a generalization-based( either functional or formal) approach through the discussion on case studies on the phonetics and phonology of Chinese dialects.
Speech research is now overwhelmingly experimental, while the mainstream linguistics is either functional or formal in general. What is explicit is that people do physical or psychological measurements through experimental approaches; but what is implicit is that the philosophical base and methodology change as well in experimental approaches. In this connection,the fundamental unit of speech/language,i. e. phoneme or distinctive features in traditional terminology, is not an abstract assumption any more as in generalization-based approaches, but an object that can be studied from perspectives of production and/or perception. This paper demonstrates the difference between an experimental approach and a generalization-based( either functional or formal) approach through the discussion on case studies on the phonetics and phonology of Chinese dialects.
引文
胡方2008论元音产生中的舌运动机制---以宁波方言为例,《中国语音学报》第1辑,(北京)商务印书馆
胡方2013降峰双元音是一个动态目标而升峰双元音是两个目标:宁波方言双元音的声学与发音运动学特性,《语言研究集刊》第十辑,上海辞书出版社
胡方2014《宁波话元音的语音学研究》,(北京)中国社会科学出版社
李如龙、张双庆[主编]1992《客赣方言调查报告》,厦门大学出版社
梁波2017跨语言音姿对比的二语语音教学原则研究,北京大学外国语学院博士论文
刘丹青1998《祁门方音》,见平田昌司[主编](1998)《徽州方言研究》,中国语学研究《开篇》单刊No.9,(东京)好文出版
刘纶鑫[主编]1999《客赣方言比较研究》,(北京)中国社会科学出版社
平田昌司[主编]1998《徽州方言研究》,《中国语学研究·开篇》单刊No.9,(东京)好文出版
邱玥、胡方2013隆昌话的元音,《语言研究集刊》第十辑,38-51页,上海辞书出版社
叶晓锋2011汉语方言语音的类型学研究,复旦大学博士论文
张倩2013信丰(铁石口)客家方言的元音格局,《语言研究集刊》第十辑,上海辞书出版社
Abercrombie,D.1967 Elements of General Phonetics.Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press.
Abramson,A.S.1962 The vowels and tones of Standard Thai:Acoustic measurements and experiments.International Journal of American Linguistics,28(2),Part II;Also Publication Twenty of the Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology,Folklore,and Linguistics,Bloomington.
Abramson,A.S.1972 Tonal experiments with whispered Thai.In Valdamn,A.(ed.),Papers on Linguistics and Phonetics to the Memory of Pierre Delattre,pp.31-44.The Hague:Mouton.
Abramson,A.S.1975 The tones of central Thai:some perceptual experiments.In Harris,J.G.&Chamberlain,J.(eds.),Studies in Tai Linguistics,pp.1-16.Bangkok:Central Institute of English Language.
Abramson,A.S.1976 Thai tones as a reference system.In Gething,T.W.,Harris,J.G.&Kullavanijaya,P.(eds.),Tai Linguistics in Honor of Fang-Kuei Li,pp.1-12.Bankok:Chulalongkorn University Press.
Abramson,A.S.1978 Static and dynamic acoustic cues in distinctive tones.Language and Speech,21(4),319-325.
Atkinson,Q.D.2011 Phonemic diversity supports a serial founder effect model of language expansion from Africa.Science 332:346.
Bao,Z.1999 The Structure of Tone.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Boersma,P.&D.Weenink 2014 Praat:doing phonetics by computer[Computer program].Version 5.3.68,retrieved 20 March 2014 from http://www.praat.org/.
Bouchard,K.E.,N.Mesgarani,K.Johnson&E.F.Chang 2013 Functional organization of human sensorimotor cortex for speech articulation.Nature 495(7441),327-332.
Catford,I.1977 Fundamental Problems in Phonetics.Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press.
Chao,Y.-R.1928 Studies in the Modern Wu Dialects.Peking:Tsinghua University Research Institute Monogragh,4.
Chao,Y.-R.1930 A system of tone-letters,La Maitre Phonetique 45,24-47.Reprinted in Fangyan,2,81-82,1980.
Chomsky,N.&M.Halle 1968 The Sound Pattern of English.New York:Harper and Row.
Fuchs,S.,D.Pape,C.Petrone&P.Perrier(eds.)2015 Individual Differences in Speech Production and Perception.Peterlang.
Galantucci,B.,C.A.Fowler&M.T.Turvey 2006 The motor theory of speech perception reviewed.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review 13(3):361-377.
Gandour,J.T.1978 The perception of tone.In Fromkin,V.A.(ed.),Tone:A Linguistic Survey:41-76.New York:Academic Press.
Holbrook,A.&G.Fairbanks 1962 Diphthong formants and their movements.Journal of Speech and Hearing Research,5:38-58.
Hombert,J.-M.1976a Consonant types,vowel height,and tone in Yoruba.UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics,33:40-54.
Hombert,J.-M.1976b Perception of tones of bisyllabic nouns in Yoruba.Studies in African Linguistics,Supplement 6:109-121.
Hombert,J.-M.1978 Consonant types,vowel quality,and tone.In Fromkin,V.A.(ed.),Tone:ALinguistic Survey:77-111.New York:Academic Press.
Jakobson,R.&L.Waugh 1979 The Sound Shape of Language.Harvester Press.
Johnson,K.2007 Decisions and mechanisms in exemplar-based phonology.In Solé,M.J.,P.Beddor&M.Ohala(eds),Experimental Approaches to Phonology.In Honor of John Ohala:25-40.Oxford University Press.
Jones,D.1922 Outline of English Phonetics(2ndEdition).New York:E.P.Dutton.
Ladefoged,P.2006 A Course in Phonetics(5thed.).Boston,M.A.:Thomson Wadsworth.
Lehiste,I.&G.E.Peterson 1961 Transitions,glides,and diphthongs.Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,33:268-277.
Liberman,A.M.&D.H.Whalen 2000 On the relation of speech to language.Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4(5):187-196.
Liberman,A.M.&I.G.Mattingly 1985 The motor theory of speech perception revised.Cognition 21(1):1-36.
Liberman,A.M.&I.G.Mattingly 1989 A specialization for speech perception.Science 243(4890):489-494.
Liberman,A.M.,F.S.Cooper,D.P.Shankweiler&M.Studdert-Kennedy 1967 Perception of the speech code.Psychological Review 74(6):431-461.
Malmberg,B.1963 Structural Linguistics and Human Communication.Berlin:Springer-Verlag.
Mesgarani,Nima,Connie Cheung,Keith Johnson&Edward F.Chang 2014 Phonetic feature encoding in human superior temporal gyrus.Science 28,343(6174):1006-1010.
Ohala,J.J.1981 The listener as a source of sound change.In C.S.Masek,R.A.Hendrick&M.F.Miller(eds.),Papers from the Parasession on Language and Behavior:178-203.Chicago:Chicago Linguistic Society.
Ohala,J.J.1991 The integration of phonetics and phonology.Proceedings of the XIIth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences,Vol.1:1-16.
Ohala,J.J.1993 Sound change as nature's speech perception experiment.Speech Communication,13,155-161.[Also reprinted in:G.Fant,K.Hirose&S.Kiritani(eds.),Analysis,Perception and Processing of Spoken Language.Festschrift for Hiroya Fujisaki:155-161.Amsterdam:Elsevier,1996.]
Ohala,J.J.1995 Experimental phonology.In John A.Goldsmith(ed.),A Handbook of Phonological Theory:713-722.Oxford:Blackwell.
Perkell,J.S.1996 Properties of the tongue help to define vowel categories:hypotheses based on physiologically-oriented modeling.Journal of Phonetics,24:3-22.
Pike,K.L.1947 On the phonemic status of English diphthongs.Language,23:151-159.
Shen,X-N.S.&M.Lin 1991 A Perceptual Study of Mandarin Tone 2 and 3.Language and Speech,34(2):145-156.
Stevens,K.N.1972 The quantal nature of speech:Evidence from articulatory-acoustic data.In P.B.Denes,&E.E.David Jr.(Eds.),Human Communication:A Unified View,pp.51-66.New York:McGraw Hill.
Stevens,K.N.1989 On the quantal nature of speech.Journal of Phonetics,17,3-46.
Sweet,H.1877 A Handbook of Phonetics Including a Popular Exposition of the Principles of Spelling Reform.Oxford:Clarendon Press.
Wang,C.,Q.Ding,H.Tao&H.Li 2012 Comment on“Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa”,Science 335:657.
Yip,M.1980 The Tonal Phonology of Chinese.Ph.D.dissertation.Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Zee,E.&W.Lee 2007 Vowel Typology in Chinese.Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences:6-10,Saarbrücken,Germany.
Zhang,M.&F.Hu 2015 Tone features in Qimen Hui Chinese dialect.Proceedings of ICPh S 2015,Glasgow,Scotland.
(1)在语言学传统上,语音之间的区别特性是从心理的角度根据直观推理定义的,即由区别特征(distinctive features)构成,但近些年来心理学领域的研究发现人类在类别感知上可能具有范例性特点(exemplar model),语言的音类也是如此(参见Johnson 2007),由于本文不具体讨论这个问题,因此不细究。
(1)我们不使用更常见的术语如前响双元音、后响双元音,是因为“前响、后响”等在字面上均涉及听感判断,不如“降峰、升峰”等根据纯声学参数定义的术语更为中性。
(1)有的北京人说英语时用[ε]代替/ai/,如arrive说成[?'εv]。不用自己语音系统里面有的/ai/来对应英语的/ai/,而是用了一个在北京话/普通话中并不符合CV音节拼合关系的单元音[ε]来代替,这便说明在北京人的大脑/语法中,北京话的/ai/跟英语的/ai/是完全不同的东西。
胡方2013降峰双元音是一个动态目标而升峰双元音是两个目标:宁波方言双元音的声学与发音运动学特性,《语言研究集刊》第十辑,上海辞书出版社
胡方2014《宁波话元音的语音学研究》,(北京)中国社会科学出版社
李如龙、张双庆[主编]1992《客赣方言调查报告》,厦门大学出版社
梁波2017跨语言音姿对比的二语语音教学原则研究,北京大学外国语学院博士论文
刘丹青1998《祁门方音》,见平田昌司[主编](1998)《徽州方言研究》,中国语学研究《开篇》单刊No.9,(东京)好文出版
刘纶鑫[主编]1999《客赣方言比较研究》,(北京)中国社会科学出版社
平田昌司[主编]1998《徽州方言研究》,《中国语学研究·开篇》单刊No.9,(东京)好文出版
邱玥、胡方2013隆昌话的元音,《语言研究集刊》第十辑,38-51页,上海辞书出版社
叶晓锋2011汉语方言语音的类型学研究,复旦大学博士论文
张倩2013信丰(铁石口)客家方言的元音格局,《语言研究集刊》第十辑,上海辞书出版社
Abercrombie,D.1967 Elements of General Phonetics.Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press.
Abramson,A.S.1962 The vowels and tones of Standard Thai:Acoustic measurements and experiments.International Journal of American Linguistics,28(2),Part II;Also Publication Twenty of the Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology,Folklore,and Linguistics,Bloomington.
Abramson,A.S.1972 Tonal experiments with whispered Thai.In Valdamn,A.(ed.),Papers on Linguistics and Phonetics to the Memory of Pierre Delattre,pp.31-44.The Hague:Mouton.
Abramson,A.S.1975 The tones of central Thai:some perceptual experiments.In Harris,J.G.&Chamberlain,J.(eds.),Studies in Tai Linguistics,pp.1-16.Bangkok:Central Institute of English Language.
Abramson,A.S.1976 Thai tones as a reference system.In Gething,T.W.,Harris,J.G.&Kullavanijaya,P.(eds.),Tai Linguistics in Honor of Fang-Kuei Li,pp.1-12.Bankok:Chulalongkorn University Press.
Abramson,A.S.1978 Static and dynamic acoustic cues in distinctive tones.Language and Speech,21(4),319-325.
Atkinson,Q.D.2011 Phonemic diversity supports a serial founder effect model of language expansion from Africa.Science 332:346.
Bao,Z.1999 The Structure of Tone.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Boersma,P.&D.Weenink 2014 Praat:doing phonetics by computer[Computer program].Version 5.3.68,retrieved 20 March 2014 from http://www.praat.org/.
Bouchard,K.E.,N.Mesgarani,K.Johnson&E.F.Chang 2013 Functional organization of human sensorimotor cortex for speech articulation.Nature 495(7441),327-332.
Catford,I.1977 Fundamental Problems in Phonetics.Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press.
Chao,Y.-R.1928 Studies in the Modern Wu Dialects.Peking:Tsinghua University Research Institute Monogragh,4.
Chao,Y.-R.1930 A system of tone-letters,La Maitre Phonetique 45,24-47.Reprinted in Fangyan,2,81-82,1980.
Chomsky,N.&M.Halle 1968 The Sound Pattern of English.New York:Harper and Row.
Fuchs,S.,D.Pape,C.Petrone&P.Perrier(eds.)2015 Individual Differences in Speech Production and Perception.Peterlang.
Galantucci,B.,C.A.Fowler&M.T.Turvey 2006 The motor theory of speech perception reviewed.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review 13(3):361-377.
Gandour,J.T.1978 The perception of tone.In Fromkin,V.A.(ed.),Tone:A Linguistic Survey:41-76.New York:Academic Press.
Holbrook,A.&G.Fairbanks 1962 Diphthong formants and their movements.Journal of Speech and Hearing Research,5:38-58.
Hombert,J.-M.1976a Consonant types,vowel height,and tone in Yoruba.UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics,33:40-54.
Hombert,J.-M.1976b Perception of tones of bisyllabic nouns in Yoruba.Studies in African Linguistics,Supplement 6:109-121.
Hombert,J.-M.1978 Consonant types,vowel quality,and tone.In Fromkin,V.A.(ed.),Tone:ALinguistic Survey:77-111.New York:Academic Press.
Jakobson,R.&L.Waugh 1979 The Sound Shape of Language.Harvester Press.
Johnson,K.2007 Decisions and mechanisms in exemplar-based phonology.In Solé,M.J.,P.Beddor&M.Ohala(eds),Experimental Approaches to Phonology.In Honor of John Ohala:25-40.Oxford University Press.
Jones,D.1922 Outline of English Phonetics(2ndEdition).New York:E.P.Dutton.
Ladefoged,P.2006 A Course in Phonetics(5thed.).Boston,M.A.:Thomson Wadsworth.
Lehiste,I.&G.E.Peterson 1961 Transitions,glides,and diphthongs.Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,33:268-277.
Liberman,A.M.&D.H.Whalen 2000 On the relation of speech to language.Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4(5):187-196.
Liberman,A.M.&I.G.Mattingly 1985 The motor theory of speech perception revised.Cognition 21(1):1-36.
Liberman,A.M.&I.G.Mattingly 1989 A specialization for speech perception.Science 243(4890):489-494.
Liberman,A.M.,F.S.Cooper,D.P.Shankweiler&M.Studdert-Kennedy 1967 Perception of the speech code.Psychological Review 74(6):431-461.
Malmberg,B.1963 Structural Linguistics and Human Communication.Berlin:Springer-Verlag.
Mesgarani,Nima,Connie Cheung,Keith Johnson&Edward F.Chang 2014 Phonetic feature encoding in human superior temporal gyrus.Science 28,343(6174):1006-1010.
Ohala,J.J.1981 The listener as a source of sound change.In C.S.Masek,R.A.Hendrick&M.F.Miller(eds.),Papers from the Parasession on Language and Behavior:178-203.Chicago:Chicago Linguistic Society.
Ohala,J.J.1991 The integration of phonetics and phonology.Proceedings of the XIIth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences,Vol.1:1-16.
Ohala,J.J.1993 Sound change as nature's speech perception experiment.Speech Communication,13,155-161.[Also reprinted in:G.Fant,K.Hirose&S.Kiritani(eds.),Analysis,Perception and Processing of Spoken Language.Festschrift for Hiroya Fujisaki:155-161.Amsterdam:Elsevier,1996.]
Ohala,J.J.1995 Experimental phonology.In John A.Goldsmith(ed.),A Handbook of Phonological Theory:713-722.Oxford:Blackwell.
Perkell,J.S.1996 Properties of the tongue help to define vowel categories:hypotheses based on physiologically-oriented modeling.Journal of Phonetics,24:3-22.
Pike,K.L.1947 On the phonemic status of English diphthongs.Language,23:151-159.
Shen,X-N.S.&M.Lin 1991 A Perceptual Study of Mandarin Tone 2 and 3.Language and Speech,34(2):145-156.
Stevens,K.N.1972 The quantal nature of speech:Evidence from articulatory-acoustic data.In P.B.Denes,&E.E.David Jr.(Eds.),Human Communication:A Unified View,pp.51-66.New York:McGraw Hill.
Stevens,K.N.1989 On the quantal nature of speech.Journal of Phonetics,17,3-46.
Sweet,H.1877 A Handbook of Phonetics Including a Popular Exposition of the Principles of Spelling Reform.Oxford:Clarendon Press.
Wang,C.,Q.Ding,H.Tao&H.Li 2012 Comment on“Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa”,Science 335:657.
Yip,M.1980 The Tonal Phonology of Chinese.Ph.D.dissertation.Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Zee,E.&W.Lee 2007 Vowel Typology in Chinese.Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences:6-10,Saarbrücken,Germany.
Zhang,M.&F.Hu 2015 Tone features in Qimen Hui Chinese dialect.Proceedings of ICPh S 2015,Glasgow,Scotland.
(1)在语言学传统上,语音之间的区别特性是从心理的角度根据直观推理定义的,即由区别特征(distinctive features)构成,但近些年来心理学领域的研究发现人类在类别感知上可能具有范例性特点(exemplar model),语言的音类也是如此(参见Johnson 2007),由于本文不具体讨论这个问题,因此不细究。
(1)我们不使用更常见的术语如前响双元音、后响双元音,是因为“前响、后响”等在字面上均涉及听感判断,不如“降峰、升峰”等根据纯声学参数定义的术语更为中性。
(1)有的北京人说英语时用[ε]代替/ai/,如arrive说成[?'εv]。不用自己语音系统里面有的/ai/来对应英语的/ai/,而是用了一个在北京话/普通话中并不符合CV音节拼合关系的单元音[ε]来代替,这便说明在北京人的大脑/语法中,北京话的/ai/跟英语的/ai/是完全不同的东西。