大都市区城市扩张过程及形态对比分析——以东京、纽约和上海为例
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摘要
大都市区化是全球城市化进程中的普遍现象,研究大都市区域城市扩张进程对理解其未来增长趋势、区域可持续发展具有重要意义。大都市区土地扩张及区域间的对比分析,以及都市区发育过程中城市扩张的一般化空间模式还未被深入理解。论文选取东京、纽约和上海3个大都市区,获取1990—2015年间3期Landsat影像数据,使用梯度和格网分析法,采用城市土地密度函数和城市扩张指数,从建设用地数量变化及其时空分布、城市形态变化等方面,多角度对比分析各城市不同阶段建设用地增长的时空差异。结果表明:①大都市区边界仍在不断扩展,建设用地在研究期内持续增长;20多年间东京、纽约和上海的建设用地面积分别增长了63%、53%和233%;上海一直处于高强度扩张状态,而纽约的城市扩张在后期几近停滞。②大都市区建设用地密度从中心向外呈圈层递减式分布,城市核心区和边缘区半径的增长最明显;城市形态均趋向于紧凑。③新增建设用地时空异质性明显。东京的远郊新城不断建设,纽约一些尚有发展潜力的区域次中心仍在扩张但速率逐渐放缓,上海的核心区外围增长剧烈并逐渐向远城区推进。④大都市区域扩张先后经历高速期—缓慢期—停滞期,扩张进程表现为核心区膨胀—次中心及新城建设—逐步形成稳定的多中心结构。
Global cities are stepping into the metropolitan era at a high speed. Studying the process of urban expansion in metropolitan areas is of great significance for understanding its future growth trend and regional sustainable development. However, urban expansion in metropolitan area, especially regional comparative analysis, has not been extensively understood. Taking three metropolitan areas—Tokyo, New York, and Shanghai—as examples, we obtained Landsat images in three time periods between 1990 and 2015(circa 1990,2000, and 2014). Using gradients and grid analysis and applying urban land density function and urban expansion index, we analyzed the spatiotemporal differences of urban expansion in two time periods from multiple perspectives. We focused on the quantitative changes and spatiotemporal distributions of built-up land,as well as urban form changes. The results show that: 1) Boundaries of these metropolitan areas were expanding and built-up land continued to grow during the study period. The built-up land area in Tokyo, New York, and Shanghai increased by 63%, 53% and 233%, respectively, over the study period. Shanghai experienced intense expansion while urban expansion in New York stagnated during the later period. 2) The density of built-up land in these metropolitan areas gradually decreases with the distance from the city center. The growth of the radii is most obvious in urban core and urban fringe, and the urban forms all tend to be compact. 3) Spatiotemporal heterogeneity of new construction land is apparent. In Tokyo, construction of new urban areas is continuous in the suburban region. In New York, some regional sub-centers with potential for growth were still expanding but the rate gradually slowed, while in Shanghai the peripheral areas of the urban core area had grown rapidly and progressively advanced to the urban fringe. 4) Regional expansion of the metropolitan areas has successively experienced high-speed growth, slow growth, and stagnation period. The expansion process manifests itself as urban core expansion, sub-center and new urban area construction, then gradually forms a stable polycentric structure.
Global cities are stepping into the metropolitan era at a high speed. Studying the process of urban expansion in metropolitan areas is of great significance for understanding its future growth trend and regional sustainable development. However, urban expansion in metropolitan area, especially regional comparative analysis, has not been extensively understood. Taking three metropolitan areas—Tokyo, New York, and Shanghai—as examples, we obtained Landsat images in three time periods between 1990 and 2015(circa 1990,2000, and 2014). Using gradients and grid analysis and applying urban land density function and urban expansion index, we analyzed the spatiotemporal differences of urban expansion in two time periods from multiple perspectives. We focused on the quantitative changes and spatiotemporal distributions of built-up land,as well as urban form changes. The results show that: 1) Boundaries of these metropolitan areas were expanding and built-up land continued to grow during the study period. The built-up land area in Tokyo, New York, and Shanghai increased by 63%, 53% and 233%, respectively, over the study period. Shanghai experienced intense expansion while urban expansion in New York stagnated during the later period. 2) The density of built-up land in these metropolitan areas gradually decreases with the distance from the city center. The growth of the radii is most obvious in urban core and urban fringe, and the urban forms all tend to be compact. 3) Spatiotemporal heterogeneity of new construction land is apparent. In Tokyo, construction of new urban areas is continuous in the suburban region. In New York, some regional sub-centers with potential for growth were still expanding but the rate gradually slowed, while in Shanghai the peripheral areas of the urban core area had grown rapidly and progressively advanced to the urban fringe. 4) Regional expansion of the metropolitan areas has successively experienced high-speed growth, slow growth, and stagnation period. The expansion process manifests itself as urban core expansion, sub-center and new urban area construction, then gradually forms a stable polycentric structure.
引文
陈江龙,高金龙,徐梦月,等.2014.南京大都市区建设用地扩张特征与机理[J].地理研究,33(3):427-438.[Chen JL,Gao J L,Xu M Y,et al.2014.Characteristics and mechanism of construction land expansion in Nanjing metropolitan area.Geographical Research,33(3):427-438.]
陈凯,刘凯,柳林,等.2015.基于随机森林的元胞自动机城市扩展模拟:以佛山市为例[J].地理科学进展,34(8):937-946.[Chen K,Liu K,Liu L,et al.2015.Urban expansion simulation by random-forest-based cellular automata:A case study of Foshan City.Progress in Geography,34(8):937-946.]
贺振,赵文亮,贺俊平.2011.郑州市城市扩张遥感动态监测及驱动力分析[J].地理研究,30(12):2272-2280.[He Z,Zhao W L,He J P.2011.Remote sensing monitoring of urban sprawl based on object-oriented and driving forces analysis:A case study of Zhengzhou City.Geographical Research,30(12):2272-2280.]
焦利民,李泽慧,许刚,等.2017.武汉市城市空间集聚要素的分布特征与模式[J].地理学报,72(8):1432-1443.[Jiao L M,Li Z H,Xu G,et al.2017.The characteristics and patterns of spatially aggregated elements in urban areas of Wuhan.Acta Geographica Sinica,72(8):1432-1443.]
焦利民,张欣.2015.基于圈层建设用地密度分析的中国主要城市扩张的时空特征[J].长江流域资源与环境,24(10):1721-1728.[Jiao L M,Zhang X.2015.Characterizing urban expansion of main metropolises in China based on built-up densities in concentric rings.Resources and Environment in the Yangtze Basin,24(10):1721-1728.]
冷炳荣,王真,钱紫华,等.2016.国内外大都市区规划实践及对重庆大都市区规划的启示[J].国际城市规划,31(6):112-119.[Leng B R,Wang Z,Qian Z H,et al.2016.Metropolitan planning practice and the enlightenment for Chongqing metropolitan region plan.Urban Panning International,31(6):112-119.]
李晓文,方精云,朴世龙.2003.上海及周边主要城镇城市用地扩展空间特征及其比较[J].地理研究,22(6):769-779.[Li X W,Fang J Y,Piao S L.2003.The comparison of spatial characteristics in urban landuse growth among the central and sub-cities in Shanghai region.Geographical Research,22(6):769-779.]
刘纪远,刘文超,匡文慧,等.2016.基于主体功能区规划的中国城乡建设用地扩张时空特征遥感分析[J].地理学报,71(3):355-369.[Liu J Y,liu W C,Kuang W H,et al.2016.Remote sensing-based analysis of the spatiotemporal characteristics of built-up area across China based on the plan for major function-oriented zones.Acta Geographica Sinica,71(3):355-369.]
毛卫华,胡德勇,曹冉,等.2013.利用MODIS产品和DMSP/OLS夜间灯光数据监测城市扩张[J].地理研究,32(7):1325-1335.[Mao W H,He D Y,Cao R,et al.2013.Monitoring urban expansion of Zhejiang Province using MO-DIS/EVI data products and DMSP/OLS nighttime light data.Geographical Research,32(7):1325-1335.]
荣朝和.2014.重视大都市区在城市化过程中的地位与作用[J].北京交通大学学报(社会科学版),13(3):1-9.[Rong CH.2014.An emphasis on the position and function of metropolis in urbanization.Journal of Beijing Jiaotong University(Social Sciences Edition),13(3):1-9.]
孙群郎,郑殿娟.2015.美国地方土地利用分区制与大都市区的低密度蔓延[J].郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版),48(6):159-165.[Sun Q L,Zheng D J.2015.US local land use zoning and low-density spread of metropolitan areas.Journal of Zhengzhou University(Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition),48(6):159-165.]
唐路,薛德升,许学强.2004.北美大都市区规划及其对珠江三角洲的启示[J].人文地理,19(1):66-70.[Tang L,Xue D S,Xu X Q.2004.North American metropolitan planning and its enlightenment on the Pearl River Delta.Human Geography,19(1):66-70.]
许学强,林先扬,周春山.2007.国外大都市区研究历程回顾及其启示[J].城市规划学刊,(2):9-14.[Xu X Q,Lin X Y,Zhou C S.2007.A review of the research process of foreign metropolitan areas and its enlightenment.Urban Planning Forum,(2):9-14.]
张欣炜,宁越敏.2015.中国大都市区的界定和发展研究:基于第六次人口普查数据的研究[J].地理科学,35(6):665-673.[Zhang X W,Ning Y M.2015.The definition and development of metropolitan areas in China based on the data from the 6th national census.Scientia Geographica Sinica,35(6):665-673.]
周艳,黄贤金,徐国良,等.2016.长三角城市土地扩张与人口增长耦合态势及其驱动机制[J].地理研究,35(2):313-324.[Zhou Y,Huang X J,Xu G L,et al.2016.The coupling and driving forces between urban land expansion and population growth in Yangtze River Delta.Geographical Research,35(2):313-324.]
Angel S,Parent J,Civco D,et al.2011.The dimensions of global urban expansion:Estimates and projections for all countries,2000-2050[J].Progress in Planning,75(2):53-107.
Bagan H,Yamagata Y.2012.Landsat analysis of urban growth:How Tokyo became the world's largest megacity during the last 40 years[J].Remote Sensing of Environment,127:210-222.
Bhatta B,Saraswati S,Bandyopadhyay D.2010.Urban sprawl measurement from remote sensing data[J].Applied Geography,30(4):731-740.
Department of Economic and Social Affairs,United Nations.2017.World population division:World urbanization prospects,the 2017 revision[R].New York,USA.
Hou H,Estoque R,Murayama Y.2016.Spatiotemporal analysis of urban growth in three African capital cities:A gridcell-based analysis[J].Journal of African Earth Sciences,123:381-391.
Irwin E G,Bockstael N E.2007.The evolution of urban sprawl:Evidence of spatial heterogeneity and increasing land fragmentation[J].PNAS,104(52):20672-20677.
Ji W,Ma J,Twibell R W,et al.2006.Characterizing urban sprawl using multi-stage remote sensing images and landscape metrics[J].Computers,Environment and Urban Systems,30(6):861-879.
Jiao L M.2015.Urban land density function:A new method to characterize urban expansion[J].Landscape and Urban Planning,139:26-39.
Kuang W,Chi W,Lu D,et al.2014.A comparative analysis of megacity expansions in China and the U.S.:Patterns,rates and driving forces[J].Landscape and Urban Planning,132:121-135.
Schneider A,Chang C,Paulsen K.2015.The changing spatial form of cities in Western China[J].Landscape and Urban Planning,135:40-61.
Schneider A,Woodcock C E.2008.Compact,dispersed,fragmented,extensive?A comparison of urban growth in twenty-five global cities using remotely sensed data,pattern metrics and census information[J].Urban Studies,45(3):659-692.
Seto K C,Fragkias M.2005.Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of urban land-use change in four cities of China with time series landscape metrics[J].Landscape Ecology,20(7):871-888.
Seto K C,Fragkias M,Guneralp B,et al.2011.A meta-analysis of global urban land expansion[J].PLoS One,6(8):1-9.
Sexton J O,Song X,Huang C,et al.2013.Urban growth of the Washington,D.C.-Baltimore,MD metropolitan region from 1984 to 2010 by annual,Landsat-based estimates of impervious cover[J].Remote Sensing of Environment,129:42-53.
Taubenb?ck H,Esch T,Felbier A,et al.2012.Monitoring urbanization in mega cities from space[J].Remote Sensing of Environment,117:162-176.
Taubenb?ck H,Wegmann M,Roth A,et al.2009.Urbanization in India:Spatiotemporal analysis using remote sensing data[J].Computers,Environment and Urban Systems,33(3):179-188.
Tian L,Li Y,Yan Y,et al.2017.Measuring urban sprawl and exploring the role planning plays:A Shanghai case study[J].Land Use Policy,67:426-435.
United Cities and Local Governments.2016.GOLD IV:Fourth global report on decentralization and local democracy[R].Barcelona,Spain.
Wu J,Jenerette G D,Buyantuyev A,et al.2011.Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of urbanization:The case of the two fastest growing metropolitan regions in the United States[J].Ecological Complexity,8(1):1-8.
Xu X,Min X.2013.Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of urban expansion in China using remote sensing data[J].Cities,35:104-113.
陈凯,刘凯,柳林,等.2015.基于随机森林的元胞自动机城市扩展模拟:以佛山市为例[J].地理科学进展,34(8):937-946.[Chen K,Liu K,Liu L,et al.2015.Urban expansion simulation by random-forest-based cellular automata:A case study of Foshan City.Progress in Geography,34(8):937-946.]
贺振,赵文亮,贺俊平.2011.郑州市城市扩张遥感动态监测及驱动力分析[J].地理研究,30(12):2272-2280.[He Z,Zhao W L,He J P.2011.Remote sensing monitoring of urban sprawl based on object-oriented and driving forces analysis:A case study of Zhengzhou City.Geographical Research,30(12):2272-2280.]
焦利民,李泽慧,许刚,等.2017.武汉市城市空间集聚要素的分布特征与模式[J].地理学报,72(8):1432-1443.[Jiao L M,Li Z H,Xu G,et al.2017.The characteristics and patterns of spatially aggregated elements in urban areas of Wuhan.Acta Geographica Sinica,72(8):1432-1443.]
焦利民,张欣.2015.基于圈层建设用地密度分析的中国主要城市扩张的时空特征[J].长江流域资源与环境,24(10):1721-1728.[Jiao L M,Zhang X.2015.Characterizing urban expansion of main metropolises in China based on built-up densities in concentric rings.Resources and Environment in the Yangtze Basin,24(10):1721-1728.]
冷炳荣,王真,钱紫华,等.2016.国内外大都市区规划实践及对重庆大都市区规划的启示[J].国际城市规划,31(6):112-119.[Leng B R,Wang Z,Qian Z H,et al.2016.Metropolitan planning practice and the enlightenment for Chongqing metropolitan region plan.Urban Panning International,31(6):112-119.]
李晓文,方精云,朴世龙.2003.上海及周边主要城镇城市用地扩展空间特征及其比较[J].地理研究,22(6):769-779.[Li X W,Fang J Y,Piao S L.2003.The comparison of spatial characteristics in urban landuse growth among the central and sub-cities in Shanghai region.Geographical Research,22(6):769-779.]
刘纪远,刘文超,匡文慧,等.2016.基于主体功能区规划的中国城乡建设用地扩张时空特征遥感分析[J].地理学报,71(3):355-369.[Liu J Y,liu W C,Kuang W H,et al.2016.Remote sensing-based analysis of the spatiotemporal characteristics of built-up area across China based on the plan for major function-oriented zones.Acta Geographica Sinica,71(3):355-369.]
毛卫华,胡德勇,曹冉,等.2013.利用MODIS产品和DMSP/OLS夜间灯光数据监测城市扩张[J].地理研究,32(7):1325-1335.[Mao W H,He D Y,Cao R,et al.2013.Monitoring urban expansion of Zhejiang Province using MO-DIS/EVI data products and DMSP/OLS nighttime light data.Geographical Research,32(7):1325-1335.]
荣朝和.2014.重视大都市区在城市化过程中的地位与作用[J].北京交通大学学报(社会科学版),13(3):1-9.[Rong CH.2014.An emphasis on the position and function of metropolis in urbanization.Journal of Beijing Jiaotong University(Social Sciences Edition),13(3):1-9.]
孙群郎,郑殿娟.2015.美国地方土地利用分区制与大都市区的低密度蔓延[J].郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版),48(6):159-165.[Sun Q L,Zheng D J.2015.US local land use zoning and low-density spread of metropolitan areas.Journal of Zhengzhou University(Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition),48(6):159-165.]
唐路,薛德升,许学强.2004.北美大都市区规划及其对珠江三角洲的启示[J].人文地理,19(1):66-70.[Tang L,Xue D S,Xu X Q.2004.North American metropolitan planning and its enlightenment on the Pearl River Delta.Human Geography,19(1):66-70.]
许学强,林先扬,周春山.2007.国外大都市区研究历程回顾及其启示[J].城市规划学刊,(2):9-14.[Xu X Q,Lin X Y,Zhou C S.2007.A review of the research process of foreign metropolitan areas and its enlightenment.Urban Planning Forum,(2):9-14.]
张欣炜,宁越敏.2015.中国大都市区的界定和发展研究:基于第六次人口普查数据的研究[J].地理科学,35(6):665-673.[Zhang X W,Ning Y M.2015.The definition and development of metropolitan areas in China based on the data from the 6th national census.Scientia Geographica Sinica,35(6):665-673.]
周艳,黄贤金,徐国良,等.2016.长三角城市土地扩张与人口增长耦合态势及其驱动机制[J].地理研究,35(2):313-324.[Zhou Y,Huang X J,Xu G L,et al.2016.The coupling and driving forces between urban land expansion and population growth in Yangtze River Delta.Geographical Research,35(2):313-324.]
Angel S,Parent J,Civco D,et al.2011.The dimensions of global urban expansion:Estimates and projections for all countries,2000-2050[J].Progress in Planning,75(2):53-107.
Bagan H,Yamagata Y.2012.Landsat analysis of urban growth:How Tokyo became the world's largest megacity during the last 40 years[J].Remote Sensing of Environment,127:210-222.
Bhatta B,Saraswati S,Bandyopadhyay D.2010.Urban sprawl measurement from remote sensing data[J].Applied Geography,30(4):731-740.
Department of Economic and Social Affairs,United Nations.2017.World population division:World urbanization prospects,the 2017 revision[R].New York,USA.
Hou H,Estoque R,Murayama Y.2016.Spatiotemporal analysis of urban growth in three African capital cities:A gridcell-based analysis[J].Journal of African Earth Sciences,123:381-391.
Irwin E G,Bockstael N E.2007.The evolution of urban sprawl:Evidence of spatial heterogeneity and increasing land fragmentation[J].PNAS,104(52):20672-20677.
Ji W,Ma J,Twibell R W,et al.2006.Characterizing urban sprawl using multi-stage remote sensing images and landscape metrics[J].Computers,Environment and Urban Systems,30(6):861-879.
Jiao L M.2015.Urban land density function:A new method to characterize urban expansion[J].Landscape and Urban Planning,139:26-39.
Kuang W,Chi W,Lu D,et al.2014.A comparative analysis of megacity expansions in China and the U.S.:Patterns,rates and driving forces[J].Landscape and Urban Planning,132:121-135.
Schneider A,Chang C,Paulsen K.2015.The changing spatial form of cities in Western China[J].Landscape and Urban Planning,135:40-61.
Schneider A,Woodcock C E.2008.Compact,dispersed,fragmented,extensive?A comparison of urban growth in twenty-five global cities using remotely sensed data,pattern metrics and census information[J].Urban Studies,45(3):659-692.
Seto K C,Fragkias M.2005.Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of urban land-use change in four cities of China with time series landscape metrics[J].Landscape Ecology,20(7):871-888.
Seto K C,Fragkias M,Guneralp B,et al.2011.A meta-analysis of global urban land expansion[J].PLoS One,6(8):1-9.
Sexton J O,Song X,Huang C,et al.2013.Urban growth of the Washington,D.C.-Baltimore,MD metropolitan region from 1984 to 2010 by annual,Landsat-based estimates of impervious cover[J].Remote Sensing of Environment,129:42-53.
Taubenb?ck H,Esch T,Felbier A,et al.2012.Monitoring urbanization in mega cities from space[J].Remote Sensing of Environment,117:162-176.
Taubenb?ck H,Wegmann M,Roth A,et al.2009.Urbanization in India:Spatiotemporal analysis using remote sensing data[J].Computers,Environment and Urban Systems,33(3):179-188.
Tian L,Li Y,Yan Y,et al.2017.Measuring urban sprawl and exploring the role planning plays:A Shanghai case study[J].Land Use Policy,67:426-435.
United Cities and Local Governments.2016.GOLD IV:Fourth global report on decentralization and local democracy[R].Barcelona,Spain.
Wu J,Jenerette G D,Buyantuyev A,et al.2011.Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of urbanization:The case of the two fastest growing metropolitan regions in the United States[J].Ecological Complexity,8(1):1-8.
Xu X,Min X.2013.Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of urban expansion in China using remote sensing data[J].Cities,35:104-113.