职业分割与流动人口户籍歧视的年龄差异
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摘要
劳动力市场的歧视问题一直是研究的热点问题,当新生代农民工成为市场主力时,歧视是否也发生了改变?文章利用2016年中国流动人口动态监测调查数据,从职业分割的视角考察了户籍歧视的年龄差异。结果表明,户籍歧视在不同年龄群组间呈现U形特征,这主要缘于职业内同工不同酬的U形变化,职业进入歧视随年龄减小而呈现下降趋势。进一步的机制分析表明,职业内同工不同酬的U形变化源自于城镇流动人口的工资优惠,70后—85后的中生代城镇流动人口获得的职业内工资优惠较小,年龄较大的70前和年龄较小的90后、95后群组获得的工资优惠较大,而城镇流动人口职业进入优惠的年龄趋势也是职业进入歧视随年龄减小而下降的主要原因,整体来看越年轻的城镇流动人口获得的职业进入优惠越小,这表明当前户籍歧视更多地表现为对城镇流动人口的就业优惠。据此,文章建议应注重户籍歧视的年龄差异和形式变化,更多采用竞争性的差异化措施吸引人才,以市场化的手段实现人才的充分流动和社会劳动力资源的优化配置。
Considering the heterogeneity among migrants,this thesis divides migrants into groups by every five years and utilizes China Migrants Dynamic Survey in 2016 to examine age-specific issues regarding huji discrimination from the perspective of occupational segregation. According to the study,a U-shaped characteristic of huji discrimination among different age groups has been detected,with rural migrants born between 1970 and 1989 suffering the least degree of huji discrimination,and those born before 1970 and after1990 suffering the worst. An analysis of huji discrimination has revealed that the U-shaped characteristic has mainly stemmed from U-shaped shifts of unequal pay for equal work,with rural migrants born between 1970 and 1989 suffering the least degree,and those born before 1970 and after 1990 suffering the worst. And occupation entry discrimination decreases significantly as the workforce gets younger,which means the younger the rural migrants are,the less occupation entry discrimination they face.The further mechanism analysis shows that the U-shaped characteristic of unequal pay for equal work within occupations is from the wage preference of urban migrants,with urban migrants born between 1970 and1989 receiving less wage preference,and those born before 1970 and after 1990 receiving more.Although the phenomenon of wage penalty imposed on rural migrants still exists,its impact is relatively small from the view of numerical value and there is no manifest trend in age.Occupation entry discrimination is mainly expressed by occupation entry preference of urban migrants,and the declining trend of occupation entry discrimination also originates from the downward trend of occupation entry preference of urban migrants.Overall,the younger the urban migrants are,the less occupation entry preference will be.Also,there is no direct occupation entry discrimination against rural migrants in the urban labor market.Occupation entry penalties are all negative in different age groups.Although occupation entry penalties for rural migrants fluctuate in different age groups,they differ not much.In the further discussion,it finds that occupation entry preference to urban migrants is mainly reflected in the fact that the proportion of white-collar occupations is higher than that of non-discrimination.The declining occupation entry preference to urban migrants also stems from the declining entry preference of white-collar occupations along with the age increasing.The results of the paper show that the current huji discrimination is more manifested as employment preference for urban migrants.The policy implications are:we should pay attention to the age difference and the form change of huji discrimination,adopt more competitive differentiation measures to attract talents,and achieve the full flow of talents and the optimal allocation of social labor resources through marketization.
Considering the heterogeneity among migrants,this thesis divides migrants into groups by every five years and utilizes China Migrants Dynamic Survey in 2016 to examine age-specific issues regarding huji discrimination from the perspective of occupational segregation. According to the study,a U-shaped characteristic of huji discrimination among different age groups has been detected,with rural migrants born between 1970 and 1989 suffering the least degree of huji discrimination,and those born before 1970 and after1990 suffering the worst. An analysis of huji discrimination has revealed that the U-shaped characteristic has mainly stemmed from U-shaped shifts of unequal pay for equal work,with rural migrants born between 1970 and 1989 suffering the least degree,and those born before 1970 and after 1990 suffering the worst. And occupation entry discrimination decreases significantly as the workforce gets younger,which means the younger the rural migrants are,the less occupation entry discrimination they face.The further mechanism analysis shows that the U-shaped characteristic of unequal pay for equal work within occupations is from the wage preference of urban migrants,with urban migrants born between 1970 and1989 receiving less wage preference,and those born before 1970 and after 1990 receiving more.Although the phenomenon of wage penalty imposed on rural migrants still exists,its impact is relatively small from the view of numerical value and there is no manifest trend in age.Occupation entry discrimination is mainly expressed by occupation entry preference of urban migrants,and the declining trend of occupation entry discrimination also originates from the downward trend of occupation entry preference of urban migrants.Overall,the younger the urban migrants are,the less occupation entry preference will be.Also,there is no direct occupation entry discrimination against rural migrants in the urban labor market.Occupation entry penalties are all negative in different age groups.Although occupation entry penalties for rural migrants fluctuate in different age groups,they differ not much.In the further discussion,it finds that occupation entry preference to urban migrants is mainly reflected in the fact that the proportion of white-collar occupations is higher than that of non-discrimination.The declining occupation entry preference to urban migrants also stems from the declining entry preference of white-collar occupations along with the age increasing.The results of the paper show that the current huji discrimination is more manifested as employment preference for urban migrants.The policy implications are:we should pay attention to the age difference and the form change of huji discrimination,adopt more competitive differentiation measures to attract talents,and achieve the full flow of talents and the optimal allocation of social labor resources through marketization.
引文
[1]蔡昉,都阳,王美艳.中国劳动力市场转型与发育[M].北京:商务印书馆,2005.
[2]邓曲恒.城镇居民与流动人口的收入差异-基于Oaxaca-Blinder和Quantile方法的分解[J].中国人口科学,2007,(2):8-16.
[3]李培林,田丰.中国新生代农民工:社会态度和行为选择[J].社会,2011,(3):1-23.
[4]孟凡强,邓保国.劳动力市场户籍歧视与城乡工资差异-基于分位数回归与分解的分析[J].中国农村经济,2014,(6):56-65.
[5]孟凡强,吴江.中国劳动力市场中的户籍歧视与劳资关系城乡差异[J].世界经济文汇,2014,(2):62-71.
[6]孙婧芳.城市劳动力市场中户籍歧视的变化:农民工的就业与工资[J].经济研究,2017,(8):171-186.
[7]王春光.新生代农村流动人口的社会认同与城乡融合的关系[J].社会学研究,2001,(3):63-76.
[8]王美艳.城市劳动力市场对外来劳动力歧视的变化[J].中国劳动经济学,2007,(1):109-119.
[9]吴贾,姚先国,张俊森.城乡户籍歧视是否趋于止步-来自改革进程中的经验证据:1989-2011[J].经济研究,2015,(11):148-160.
[10]吴晓刚,张卓妮.户口、职业隔离与中国城镇的收入不平等[J].中国社会科学,2014,(6):118-140.
[11]谢嗣胜,姚先国.农民工工资歧视的计量分析[J].中国农村经济,2006,(4):49-55.
[12]邢春冰.农民工与城镇职工的收入差距[J].管理世界,2008,(5):55-64.
[13]姚先国,赖普清.中国劳资关系的城乡户籍差异[J].经济研究,2004,(7):82-90.
[14]章莉,李实,Darity Jr W A,et al.中国劳动力市场上工资收入的户籍歧视[J].管理世界,2014,(11):35-46.
[15]章莉,李实,Darity Jr W A,et al.中国劳动力市场就业机会的户籍歧视及其变化趋势[J].财经研究,2016,(1):4-16.
[16]章元,王昊.城市劳动力市场上的户籍歧视与地域歧视:基于人口普查数据的研究[J].管理世界,2011,(7):42-51.
[17]周小亮.劳动力市场城乡歧视及其社会经济效应[J].当代财经,1994,(9):11-15.
[18]Appleton S,Hoddinott J,Krishnan P.The gender wage gap in three African countries[J].Economic Development and Cultural Change,1999,47(2):289-312.
[19]Becker G S.The economics of discrimination[M].Chicago,IL:University of Chicago Press,1971.
[20]Bergmann B R.The effect on white incomes of discrimination in employment[J].Journal of Political Economy,1971,79(2):294-313.
[21]Blinder A S.Wage discrimination:Reduced form and structural estimates[J].Journal of Human Resources,1973,8(4):436-455.
[22]Dahlberg M,Ekl?f M,Fredriksson P,et al.Estimating preferences for local public services using migration data[J].Urban Studies,2012,49(2):319-336.
[23]Doeringer P B,Piore M J.Internal labour markets and manpower analysis[M].Lexington Mass.:D.C.Heath,1971.
[24]Meng X,Zhang J S.The two-tier labor market in urban China:Occupational segregation and wage differentials between urban residents and rural migrants in Shanghai[J].Journal of Comparative Economics,2001,29(3):485-504.
[25]Neumark D.Employers’discriminatory behavior and the estimation of wage discrimination[J].Journal of Human Resources,1988,23(3):279-295.
[26]Oaxaca R L.Male-female wage differentials in urban labor markets[J].International Economic Review,1973,14(3):693-709.
[27]Phelps E S.The statistical theory of racism and sexism[J].American Economic Review,1972,62(4):659-661.
[28]Zhang L,Sharpe R V,Li S,et al.Wage differentials between urban and rural-urban migrant workers in China[J].China Economic Review,2016,41:222-233.
[29]Zhu R.Wage differentials between urban residents and rural migrants in urban China during 2002-2007:A distributional analysis[J].China Economic Review,2016,37:2-14.
(1)竞争行业包括建筑,批发零售,住宿餐饮,居民服务、修理和其他服务业;垄断行业包括电煤水热生产供应,交通运输、仓储和邮政,信息传输、软件和信息技术服务,金融;其他行业包括农林牧渔,采矿,制造,房地产,租赁和商务服务,科研和技术服务,水利、环境和公共设施管理,教育,卫生和社会工作,文体和娱乐,公共管理、社会保障和社会组织,国际组织。
(2)国有单位包括机关、事业单位,国有及国有控股企业,集体企业,社团/民办组织;民营企业包括股份/联营企业,私营企业;外资企业包括港澳台独资企业,外商独资企业和中外合资企业;个体工商户和无单位者界定为个体工商户。
(1)按出生队列进行的群组划分一般用来分析代际效应,但本文对60前、60后、65后、70后、75后、80后、85后、90后、95后的群体界定虽以年代为名,主要考虑年龄群组,因此本质上仍为分析不同年龄群组的户籍歧视问题。
(2)其中包含2000年出生的样本49个。
(1)受篇幅所限,各群组的职业获得方程和工资方程未列于正文,有兴趣的读者可向作者索取。
[2]邓曲恒.城镇居民与流动人口的收入差异-基于Oaxaca-Blinder和Quantile方法的分解[J].中国人口科学,2007,(2):8-16.
[3]李培林,田丰.中国新生代农民工:社会态度和行为选择[J].社会,2011,(3):1-23.
[4]孟凡强,邓保国.劳动力市场户籍歧视与城乡工资差异-基于分位数回归与分解的分析[J].中国农村经济,2014,(6):56-65.
[5]孟凡强,吴江.中国劳动力市场中的户籍歧视与劳资关系城乡差异[J].世界经济文汇,2014,(2):62-71.
[6]孙婧芳.城市劳动力市场中户籍歧视的变化:农民工的就业与工资[J].经济研究,2017,(8):171-186.
[7]王春光.新生代农村流动人口的社会认同与城乡融合的关系[J].社会学研究,2001,(3):63-76.
[8]王美艳.城市劳动力市场对外来劳动力歧视的变化[J].中国劳动经济学,2007,(1):109-119.
[9]吴贾,姚先国,张俊森.城乡户籍歧视是否趋于止步-来自改革进程中的经验证据:1989-2011[J].经济研究,2015,(11):148-160.
[10]吴晓刚,张卓妮.户口、职业隔离与中国城镇的收入不平等[J].中国社会科学,2014,(6):118-140.
[11]谢嗣胜,姚先国.农民工工资歧视的计量分析[J].中国农村经济,2006,(4):49-55.
[12]邢春冰.农民工与城镇职工的收入差距[J].管理世界,2008,(5):55-64.
[13]姚先国,赖普清.中国劳资关系的城乡户籍差异[J].经济研究,2004,(7):82-90.
[14]章莉,李实,Darity Jr W A,et al.中国劳动力市场上工资收入的户籍歧视[J].管理世界,2014,(11):35-46.
[15]章莉,李实,Darity Jr W A,et al.中国劳动力市场就业机会的户籍歧视及其变化趋势[J].财经研究,2016,(1):4-16.
[16]章元,王昊.城市劳动力市场上的户籍歧视与地域歧视:基于人口普查数据的研究[J].管理世界,2011,(7):42-51.
[17]周小亮.劳动力市场城乡歧视及其社会经济效应[J].当代财经,1994,(9):11-15.
[18]Appleton S,Hoddinott J,Krishnan P.The gender wage gap in three African countries[J].Economic Development and Cultural Change,1999,47(2):289-312.
[19]Becker G S.The economics of discrimination[M].Chicago,IL:University of Chicago Press,1971.
[20]Bergmann B R.The effect on white incomes of discrimination in employment[J].Journal of Political Economy,1971,79(2):294-313.
[21]Blinder A S.Wage discrimination:Reduced form and structural estimates[J].Journal of Human Resources,1973,8(4):436-455.
[22]Dahlberg M,Ekl?f M,Fredriksson P,et al.Estimating preferences for local public services using migration data[J].Urban Studies,2012,49(2):319-336.
[23]Doeringer P B,Piore M J.Internal labour markets and manpower analysis[M].Lexington Mass.:D.C.Heath,1971.
[24]Meng X,Zhang J S.The two-tier labor market in urban China:Occupational segregation and wage differentials between urban residents and rural migrants in Shanghai[J].Journal of Comparative Economics,2001,29(3):485-504.
[25]Neumark D.Employers’discriminatory behavior and the estimation of wage discrimination[J].Journal of Human Resources,1988,23(3):279-295.
[26]Oaxaca R L.Male-female wage differentials in urban labor markets[J].International Economic Review,1973,14(3):693-709.
[27]Phelps E S.The statistical theory of racism and sexism[J].American Economic Review,1972,62(4):659-661.
[28]Zhang L,Sharpe R V,Li S,et al.Wage differentials between urban and rural-urban migrant workers in China[J].China Economic Review,2016,41:222-233.
[29]Zhu R.Wage differentials between urban residents and rural migrants in urban China during 2002-2007:A distributional analysis[J].China Economic Review,2016,37:2-14.
(1)竞争行业包括建筑,批发零售,住宿餐饮,居民服务、修理和其他服务业;垄断行业包括电煤水热生产供应,交通运输、仓储和邮政,信息传输、软件和信息技术服务,金融;其他行业包括农林牧渔,采矿,制造,房地产,租赁和商务服务,科研和技术服务,水利、环境和公共设施管理,教育,卫生和社会工作,文体和娱乐,公共管理、社会保障和社会组织,国际组织。
(2)国有单位包括机关、事业单位,国有及国有控股企业,集体企业,社团/民办组织;民营企业包括股份/联营企业,私营企业;外资企业包括港澳台独资企业,外商独资企业和中外合资企业;个体工商户和无单位者界定为个体工商户。
(1)按出生队列进行的群组划分一般用来分析代际效应,但本文对60前、60后、65后、70后、75后、80后、85后、90后、95后的群体界定虽以年代为名,主要考虑年龄群组,因此本质上仍为分析不同年龄群组的户籍歧视问题。
(2)其中包含2000年出生的样本49个。
(1)受篇幅所限,各群组的职业获得方程和工资方程未列于正文,有兴趣的读者可向作者索取。