权力对压力应对行为倾向的影响:认知评估的中介作用
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摘要
采用实验法探讨权力对压力应对行为的影响以及认知评估在二者关系中的作用。实验一通过回忆法操纵权力,测量被试在压力情境下的认知评估和行为倾向。结果发现,权力水平影响压力下的生理反应,高权力者产生挑战,低权力者产生威胁;认知评估在权力和压力应对行为倾向间起中介作用。实验二进一步探究了权力对压力应对行为的影响,结果发现认知评估中介权力和压力应对行为倾向,且不同权力水平者的压力应对行为存在显著差异。
Power is conceptualized as an ability to control or influence other's feeling, thoughts, or behaviors. Although researchers have tested the relationship between power and behavior, the relationship between power, cognitive appraisal and behavior under stress situation has not been reported. It is important to understand why some people perform well under stress. In reality, people can observe that some individuals view the situation as a challenge and perform well, but for others it is a threat and they perform poorly. The Approach-Inhibition Theory of Power holds that high power activates the behavioral approach system, while low power activates the behavioral inhibition system. According to the theory, current research aimed to fill the gap with two experiments. The experimenter hypothesized that the stimulation of stress will lead to different cognitive appraisals(challenge/threat experiences) by high-power and low-power conditions, meanwhile opposite tendencies and behaviors would emerge in the two group participants. Considering the correspondences among power, cognitive appraisal and behavioral tendencies, we proposed such a hypothesis that cognitive appraisal will be a mediating variable of power and behavioral tendencies under stress situation.Experiment 1 recruited 60 participants, they were randomly assigned to either the high-power condition or the low-power condition. Participants in high-power condition were asked to recall an event in which they had power to control others, and in the low-power condition they recalled event when they were controlled. To make stress, we told them they needed to make a five minutes speech in front of an expert. Before the speech, participants needed to complete threat/challenge assessment items, and after the speech, they needed to finish the Sense of Power Scale and BAS/BIS Scale. Participants' physiological reactions, such as HR, MAP and CO were measured during the whole process. The physiological reactions showed that high power participants perceived challenge, and low power participants felt threatened. The results also demonstrated that cognitive appraisal mediated the effects of power on stress-coping behavioral tendencies.A total number of 75 college students took part in experiment 2. This experiment design was the same as with experiment 1, but the real behavior variable measured by black jack game was added. The result also demonstrated the mediating effect of cognitive appraisal between the power priming and behavioral tendencies. In addition, we found out that the coping behaviors of high power participants were significantly different with low power participants, the former had more approach behavior and the latter had more inhibition behavior.To sum up, both the results of two experiments showed the effect of power in the stress situation:(a) High-power led to challenge but lowpower led to threat;(b) Meanwhile, high-power activated behavioral approach tendencies and approach behavior, yet low-power activated behavioral inhibition tendencies and inhibition behavior;(c) There was a mediating effect of cognitive appraisal on relations between power and behavioral tendencies under stress situation.This research expands the cognitive appraisal theory and the approach inhibition theory. It reveals that power can influence behavioral tendencies by cognitive appraisal under stress situation. The result indicates that power resources not only directly affect the behavioral tendency, but also buffer or intensify the behavioral tendency by the specific cognition under stress situation.
Power is conceptualized as an ability to control or influence other's feeling, thoughts, or behaviors. Although researchers have tested the relationship between power and behavior, the relationship between power, cognitive appraisal and behavior under stress situation has not been reported. It is important to understand why some people perform well under stress. In reality, people can observe that some individuals view the situation as a challenge and perform well, but for others it is a threat and they perform poorly. The Approach-Inhibition Theory of Power holds that high power activates the behavioral approach system, while low power activates the behavioral inhibition system. According to the theory, current research aimed to fill the gap with two experiments. The experimenter hypothesized that the stimulation of stress will lead to different cognitive appraisals(challenge/threat experiences) by high-power and low-power conditions, meanwhile opposite tendencies and behaviors would emerge in the two group participants. Considering the correspondences among power, cognitive appraisal and behavioral tendencies, we proposed such a hypothesis that cognitive appraisal will be a mediating variable of power and behavioral tendencies under stress situation.Experiment 1 recruited 60 participants, they were randomly assigned to either the high-power condition or the low-power condition. Participants in high-power condition were asked to recall an event in which they had power to control others, and in the low-power condition they recalled event when they were controlled. To make stress, we told them they needed to make a five minutes speech in front of an expert. Before the speech, participants needed to complete threat/challenge assessment items, and after the speech, they needed to finish the Sense of Power Scale and BAS/BIS Scale. Participants' physiological reactions, such as HR, MAP and CO were measured during the whole process. The physiological reactions showed that high power participants perceived challenge, and low power participants felt threatened. The results also demonstrated that cognitive appraisal mediated the effects of power on stress-coping behavioral tendencies.A total number of 75 college students took part in experiment 2. This experiment design was the same as with experiment 1, but the real behavior variable measured by black jack game was added. The result also demonstrated the mediating effect of cognitive appraisal between the power priming and behavioral tendencies. In addition, we found out that the coping behaviors of high power participants were significantly different with low power participants, the former had more approach behavior and the latter had more inhibition behavior.To sum up, both the results of two experiments showed the effect of power in the stress situation:(a) High-power led to challenge but lowpower led to threat;(b) Meanwhile, high-power activated behavioral approach tendencies and approach behavior, yet low-power activated behavioral inhibition tendencies and inhibition behavior;(c) There was a mediating effect of cognitive appraisal on relations between power and behavioral tendencies under stress situation.This research expands the cognitive appraisal theory and the approach inhibition theory. It reveals that power can influence behavioral tendencies by cognitive appraisal under stress situation. The result indicates that power resources not only directly affect the behavioral tendency, but also buffer or intensify the behavioral tendency by the specific cognition under stress situation.
引文
管延华,迟毓凯,王梦怡,江巍.(2016).权力对控制错觉的影响.心理科学,39(2),418-423.
李芳丽,赵玉芳.(2015).现实群际威胁的认知评估对执行功能影响的研究.西南大学学报(自然科学版),37(12),116-121.
李洋,张力为,张连成.(2013).挑战-威胁状态理论与运动员竞赛中的自我控制.心理科学进展,21(9),1696-1710.
谭洁.(2011).权力感知匹配的行为接近-抑制效应.浙江大学硕士学位论文.
喻丰,郭永玉.(2009).攻击者的注意偏向与归因偏向及其关系.心理科学进展,17(4),821-828.
Akinola,M.,&Mendes,W.B.(2014).It's good to be the king:Neurobiological benefits of higher social standing.Social Psychological and Personality Science,5(1),43-51.
Anderson,C.,John,O.P.,&Keltner,D.(2012).The personal sense of power.Journal of Personality,80(2),313-344.
Boksem,M.A.S.,Smolders,R.,&De Cremer,D.(2012).Social power and approach-related neural activity.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,7(5),516-520.
Carney,D.R.,Cuddy,A.J.C.,&Yap,A.J.(2010).Power posing:Brief nonverbal displays affect neuroendocrine levels and risk tolerance.Psychological Science,21(10),1363-1368.
Carver,C.S.,&White,T.L.(1994).Behavioral inhibition,behavioral activation,and affective responses to impending reward and punishment:The BIS/BASScales.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,67(2),319-333.
Fast,N.J.,&Chen,S.(2009).When the boss feels inadequate:Power,incompetence,and aggression.Psychological Science,20(11),1406.
Folkman,S.,Lazarus,R.S.,Gruen,R.J.,&De Longis,A.(1986).Appraisal,coping,health status,and psychological symptoms.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,50(3),571-579.
Galinsky,A.D.,Gruenfeld,D.H.,&Magee,J.C.(2003).From power to action.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,85(3),453-466.
Galinsky,A.D.,Magee,J.C.,Gruenfeld,D.H.,Whitson,J.A.,&Liljenquist,K.A.(2008).Power reduces the press of the situation:Implications for creativity,conformity,and dissonance.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,95(6),1450-1466.
Guinote,A.(2007).Power and goal pursuit.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,33(8),1076-1087.
Guinote,A.(2017).How power affects people:Activating,wanting,and goal seeking.Annual Review of Psychology,68(1),353-381.
Inesi,M.E.(2010).Power and loss aversion.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,112(1),58-69.
Kang,S.K.,Galinsky,A.D.,Kray,L.J.,&Shirako,A.(2015).Power affects performance when the pressure is on:Evidence for low-power threat and high-power lift.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,41(5),726-735.
Keltner,D.,Gruenfeld,D.H.,&Anderson,C.(2003).Power,approach,and inhibition.Psychological Review,110(2),265-284.
Meijen,C.,Jones,M.V.,Mccarthy,P.J.,Sheffield,D.,&Allen,M.S.(2013).Cognitive and affective components of challenge and threat states.Journal of Sports Sciences,31(8),847-855.
Moore,L.J.,Vine,S.J.,Wilson,M.R.,&Paul,F.(2012).The effect of challenge and threat states on performance:An examination of potential mechanisms.Psychophysiology,49(10),1417-1425.
Murayama,K.,&Elliot,A.J.(2012).The competition-performance relation:Ameta-analytic review and test of the opposing processes model of competition and performance.Psychological Bulletin,138(6),1035-1070.
Paunonen,S.V.,&Lebel,E.P.(2012).Socially desirable responding and its elusive effects on the validity of personality assessments.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,103(1),158-175.
Scheepers,D.,R?ell,C.,&Ellemers,N.(2015).Unstable power threatens the powerful and challenges the powerless:Evidence from cardiovascular markers of motivation.Frontiers in Psychology,6,720.
Scheepers,D.,de Wit,F.,Ellemers,N.,&Sassenberg,K.(2012).Social power makes the heart work more efficiently:Evidence from cardiovascular markers of challenge and threat.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,48(1),371-374.
Schmid,P.C.,&Mast,M.S.(2013).Power increases performance in a social evaluation situation as a result of decreased stress responses.European Journal of Social Psychology,43(3),201-211.
Tomaka,J.,Blascovich,J.,Kibler,J.,&Ernst,J.M.(1997).Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,73(1),63-72.
Turner,M.J.,Jones,M.V.,Sheffield,D.,Barker,J.B.,&Coffee,P.(2014).Manipulating cardiovascular indices of challenge and threat using resource appraisals.International Journal of Psychophysiology,94(1),9-18.
Turner,M.J.,Jones,M.V.,Sheffield,D.,&Cross,S.L.(2012).Cardiovascular indices of challenge and threat states predict competitive performance.International Journal of Psychophysiology,86(1),48-57.
Turner,M.J.,Jones,M.V.,Sheffield,D.,Slater,M.J.,Barker,J.B.,&Bell,J.J.(2013).Who thrives under pressure?Predicting the performance of elite academy cricketers using the cardiovascular indicators of challenge and threat states.Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,35(4),387-397.
李芳丽,赵玉芳.(2015).现实群际威胁的认知评估对执行功能影响的研究.西南大学学报(自然科学版),37(12),116-121.
李洋,张力为,张连成.(2013).挑战-威胁状态理论与运动员竞赛中的自我控制.心理科学进展,21(9),1696-1710.
谭洁.(2011).权力感知匹配的行为接近-抑制效应.浙江大学硕士学位论文.
喻丰,郭永玉.(2009).攻击者的注意偏向与归因偏向及其关系.心理科学进展,17(4),821-828.
Akinola,M.,&Mendes,W.B.(2014).It's good to be the king:Neurobiological benefits of higher social standing.Social Psychological and Personality Science,5(1),43-51.
Anderson,C.,John,O.P.,&Keltner,D.(2012).The personal sense of power.Journal of Personality,80(2),313-344.
Boksem,M.A.S.,Smolders,R.,&De Cremer,D.(2012).Social power and approach-related neural activity.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,7(5),516-520.
Carney,D.R.,Cuddy,A.J.C.,&Yap,A.J.(2010).Power posing:Brief nonverbal displays affect neuroendocrine levels and risk tolerance.Psychological Science,21(10),1363-1368.
Carver,C.S.,&White,T.L.(1994).Behavioral inhibition,behavioral activation,and affective responses to impending reward and punishment:The BIS/BASScales.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,67(2),319-333.
Fast,N.J.,&Chen,S.(2009).When the boss feels inadequate:Power,incompetence,and aggression.Psychological Science,20(11),1406.
Folkman,S.,Lazarus,R.S.,Gruen,R.J.,&De Longis,A.(1986).Appraisal,coping,health status,and psychological symptoms.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,50(3),571-579.
Galinsky,A.D.,Gruenfeld,D.H.,&Magee,J.C.(2003).From power to action.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,85(3),453-466.
Galinsky,A.D.,Magee,J.C.,Gruenfeld,D.H.,Whitson,J.A.,&Liljenquist,K.A.(2008).Power reduces the press of the situation:Implications for creativity,conformity,and dissonance.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,95(6),1450-1466.
Guinote,A.(2007).Power and goal pursuit.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,33(8),1076-1087.
Guinote,A.(2017).How power affects people:Activating,wanting,and goal seeking.Annual Review of Psychology,68(1),353-381.
Inesi,M.E.(2010).Power and loss aversion.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,112(1),58-69.
Kang,S.K.,Galinsky,A.D.,Kray,L.J.,&Shirako,A.(2015).Power affects performance when the pressure is on:Evidence for low-power threat and high-power lift.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,41(5),726-735.
Keltner,D.,Gruenfeld,D.H.,&Anderson,C.(2003).Power,approach,and inhibition.Psychological Review,110(2),265-284.
Meijen,C.,Jones,M.V.,Mccarthy,P.J.,Sheffield,D.,&Allen,M.S.(2013).Cognitive and affective components of challenge and threat states.Journal of Sports Sciences,31(8),847-855.
Moore,L.J.,Vine,S.J.,Wilson,M.R.,&Paul,F.(2012).The effect of challenge and threat states on performance:An examination of potential mechanisms.Psychophysiology,49(10),1417-1425.
Murayama,K.,&Elliot,A.J.(2012).The competition-performance relation:Ameta-analytic review and test of the opposing processes model of competition and performance.Psychological Bulletin,138(6),1035-1070.
Paunonen,S.V.,&Lebel,E.P.(2012).Socially desirable responding and its elusive effects on the validity of personality assessments.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,103(1),158-175.
Scheepers,D.,R?ell,C.,&Ellemers,N.(2015).Unstable power threatens the powerful and challenges the powerless:Evidence from cardiovascular markers of motivation.Frontiers in Psychology,6,720.
Scheepers,D.,de Wit,F.,Ellemers,N.,&Sassenberg,K.(2012).Social power makes the heart work more efficiently:Evidence from cardiovascular markers of challenge and threat.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,48(1),371-374.
Schmid,P.C.,&Mast,M.S.(2013).Power increases performance in a social evaluation situation as a result of decreased stress responses.European Journal of Social Psychology,43(3),201-211.
Tomaka,J.,Blascovich,J.,Kibler,J.,&Ernst,J.M.(1997).Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,73(1),63-72.
Turner,M.J.,Jones,M.V.,Sheffield,D.,Barker,J.B.,&Coffee,P.(2014).Manipulating cardiovascular indices of challenge and threat using resource appraisals.International Journal of Psychophysiology,94(1),9-18.
Turner,M.J.,Jones,M.V.,Sheffield,D.,&Cross,S.L.(2012).Cardiovascular indices of challenge and threat states predict competitive performance.International Journal of Psychophysiology,86(1),48-57.
Turner,M.J.,Jones,M.V.,Sheffield,D.,Slater,M.J.,Barker,J.B.,&Bell,J.J.(2013).Who thrives under pressure?Predicting the performance of elite academy cricketers using the cardiovascular indicators of challenge and threat states.Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,35(4),387-397.