杜鲁门政府涉藏心理战探析
|
摘要
在对华冷战背景下,杜鲁门政府放弃了不介入西藏事务、承认西藏是中国领土组成部分的传统政策,开始考虑以涉藏心理战阻挠中国统一,给中共统治制造麻烦,分化中国与周边国家关系。建国之初,涉藏心理战引而不发。中苏结盟,特别是和平解放西藏的"十七条协议"签署后,美国积极寻求英印的支持,利用流亡藏人和西藏境内的"藏独"势力将该战略初步付诸实施。由于中国中央人民政府正确的治藏举措,加之印度的消极态度,杜鲁门政府的涉藏心理战并未达到预期目标,但它也开启了美国此后借西藏问题干涉中国内政的先河。
In the context of Cold War,the Truman Administration abandoned US'traditional policy of non-intervention in Tibetan affairs and recognized Tibet is a part of China.To forestall the unification of China,to put the CCP's rule to trouble and to isolate China from its neighbors,President Truman began to designed psychological warfare strategy with respect to Tibet.At the early time of PRC,this strategy just indicated the motions.As China and the Soviet Union became allies and"Seventeen-Article Agreement"was signed,US strived to get supports from Britain and India and exploit Tibetans pursuing"Tibet Independence"both at home and abroad to implement this strategy preliminarily.Because of CCP's successful governing of Tibet,and shortage of Indian's and Britain's coordination,the psychological warfare strategy with respect to Tibet didn't achieve the desirable objectives,but it became the pioneer of US'intervention in China's internal affairs by so called"Tibetan Issue".
In the context of Cold War,the Truman Administration abandoned US'traditional policy of non-intervention in Tibetan affairs and recognized Tibet is a part of China.To forestall the unification of China,to put the CCP's rule to trouble and to isolate China from its neighbors,President Truman began to designed psychological warfare strategy with respect to Tibet.At the early time of PRC,this strategy just indicated the motions.As China and the Soviet Union became allies and"Seventeen-Article Agreement"was signed,US strived to get supports from Britain and India and exploit Tibetans pursuing"Tibet Independence"both at home and abroad to implement this strategy preliminarily.Because of CCP's successful governing of Tibet,and shortage of Indian's and Britain's coordination,the psychological warfare strategy with respect to Tibet didn't achieve the desirable objectives,but it became the pioneer of US'intervention in China's internal affairs by so called"Tibetan Issue".
引文
[1]CIA Situation Report,“China”,Special Report,No.8,May 1948[G]//Declassified Documents Reference System(DDRS).Document Number:CK3100341033.Michigan:Farmington Hills,Gale Company,2014.
[2]NSC10/2,A Report to the National Security Council,June 18,1948[G]//Digital National Security Archive(DNSA).Document Number:PD00028.Michigan:ProQuest Information and Learning Company,2015.
[3]Foreign Relations of the United States(FRUS),1949,Vol.9[G].Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1974.
[4]Telegram from Stuart to Acheson,No.1393,June 28,1949[G]//State Decimal File,893.01/6-2849.Record Group59,box 15.National Archives II.College Park,Maryland.
[5]Telegram from Henderson to Acheson,No.888,August 5,1949[G]//State Decimal File,893.00/8-549.Record Group 59,box 15.National Archives II.
[6]Memorandum from Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Foreign Office,September 15,1949[G]//FO 371/76315.UK National Archives.Kew,London.
[7]Memorandum from Charles L.Bolte to US Army Chief of Staff,“Possible utilization of$75,000,000for the‘General Area’of China”,November 16,1949[G]//Records of the Army Staff,Correspondence,TS Decimal Files,Psy War 091.412TS,Record Group 319,box 1.National Archives II.
[8]CIA intelligence memorandum,“Possible emergency demands for US military aid”,No.255,December 9,1949[G]//Declassified Documents Reference System(DDRS).Document Number:CK3100330758.
[9]A report by an ad hoc committee to JCS,“Program of assistance for the general area of China”,January 16,1950[G]//Declassified Documents Reference System(DDRS).Document Number:CK3100399208.
[10]Memorandum of Conversation between Sprous and Mr.Graves,December 21,1949[G]//State Decimal File,893.00/12-2149.Record Group 59,box 15.National Archives II.
[11]Memorandum of Conversation between Dean Acheson and Lowell Thomas,February 17,1950[G]//Dean Acheson Papers,box 65.Harry S.Truman Library.Independence,Missouri.
[12]Telegram from Richardson to the Foreign Office,“Indian Mission Report”,January 15,1950[G]//FO 371/84453.UK National Archives.
[13]A report to the president,“The Foreign Information Program and Psychological Warfare Planning”,NSC 59/1,March 9,1950[G]//DNSA.Document Number:PD00160.
[14]NSC,“Current policies of the government of the United States of America relating to the national security”,part II,November 1,1952[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100265653.
[15]CIA,“Review of the World Situation”,CIA 3-50,March 15,1950[G]//Papers of Harry S.Truman,President’s Secretary’s Files,National Security Council folder,box 207.Harry S.Truman Library.
[16]Memorandum for NSC,“Supplemental budget estimate for the information and education exchange program”,May 29,1950[G]//Papers of Harry S.Truman,President’s Secretary’s Files,National Security Council folder,box 207.Harry S.Truman Library.
[17]Memorandum form CIA to the president,“Comments on Mao Tse-tung’s speech to the Chinese Communist Party Central Committee”,June 19,1950[G]//Papers of Harry S.Truman,President’s Secretary’s Files,National Security Council folder,box 207.Harry S.Truman Library.
[18]Report to the NSC,“A plan for national psychological warfare”,NSC 74,July 10,1950[G]//DNSA.Document Number:PD002000.
[19]CIA,“Situation summary”,July 27,1950[G]//Presidential Papers,President’s Secretary’s Files,Situation Summaries folder,box 211.Harry S.Truman Library.
[20]CIA,“Situation Report”,August 10,1950[G]//Presidential Papers,President’s Secretary’s Files,Situation Summaries folder,box 211.Harry S.Truman Library.
[21]CIA,“Situation Report”,September 15,1950[G]//Presidential Papers,President’s Secretary’s Files,Situation Summaries folder,box 211.Harry S.Truman Library.
[22]Memorandum for record on the Joint Intelligence Indications Committee findings for the meeting held October,25 1950,October 26,1950[G]//Records of Headquarters,United States Air Force(Air Staff),Records of Top Secret Cables and Controls Division,Record Group 341,Folder 2-16600-2-16699,box 53.National Archives II.
[23]Memorandum from the Department of State to the President,“Summary of telegrams pertaining to China’s invasion of Tibet and Tibet trade with India”,October 30,1950[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100067985.
[24]FRUS,1950,Vol.6[G].Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1976.
[25]Telegram from Henderson to Acheson,No.1072,November 3,1950[G]//State Decimal File,793B.00/11-350.Record Group 59,box 4226.National Archives II.
[26]Memorandum for director of central intelligence,“Soviet AOB and Significant Air Developments,25October-1November 1950”,November 2,1950[G]//Records of Headquarters,United States Air Force(Air Staff),Records of Top Secret Cables and Controls Division,Record Group 341,Folder 2-16800-2-16899.box 53.National Archives II.
[27]Summary of telegrams,November 13,1950[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100262776.
[28]CIA,“Review of the World situation”,CIA 11-50,November 15,1950[G]//Presidential Papers,President’s Secretary’s Files,Situation Summaries folder,box 211.Harry S.Truman Library.
[29]US-UK Washington Conversations,December 4,1950[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100343914.
[30]CIA,“Situation summary”,December 15,1950[G]//Presidential Papers,President’s Secretary’s Files,Situation Summaries folder,box 211.Harry S.Truman Library.
[31]Memorandum from Clubb to Rusk,“Possible American Reaction to Chinese Communist Intervention in Korea”,December14,1950[G]//Records of the Department of State,Top Secret Subject Files,1945-1950.China Affairs,Record Group 59,TS 950Korea,November-December,box 18.National Archives II.
[32]Memorandum of conversation,“Report of senators Green and Ferguson on their round-the-world trip”,January 9,1951[G]//Dean Acheson Papers,box 65.Harry S.Truman Library.
[33]A report to the NSC,“The position of the United States with respect to South Asia”,January 5,1951[G]//NSC 98,DNSA.Document Number:PD00241.
[34]Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense,“Review of the current world situation and ability of the forces being maintained to meet United States commitments”,January 15,1951[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100372322.
[35]Note by Joint Secretariat to JCS,“Estimate of the Scale and Nature of the Immediate Communist Threat to Security of the United States”,JCS 1924/49,February 19,1951[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100362376.
[36]Basic issue on the use of U.S.armed forces to counter further soviet or satellite aggression,March 1,1951[G]//DDRS,Document Number:CK3100326403.
[37]Memorandum from Clubb to Merchant,“Organization of Task Force for Work with‘Third Force’Elements”,April 25,1951[G]//State Decimal Files,793.00/4-2551,Record Group 59,box 4198.National Archives II.
[38]CIA office of current intelligence,Daily Digest,No.49420,November 9,1951[G]//DNSA.Document Number:CI00828.
[39]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,December 15,1951[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[40]Foreign Relations of the United States(FRUS),1951,Vol.7[G].Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1983.
[41]Intelligence Memorandum,“The‘Liberation’of Tibet”,June 16,1951[G]//DNSA.Document Number:CI00759.
[42]National Intelligence Estimate,“India’s position in the East-West conflict”,NIE-23,September 4,1951[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100165584.
[43]CIA office of current intelligence,“Current intelligence review”,Vol.I,No.15,November 21,1951[G]//DNSA.Document Number:CI00832.
[44]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,February 15,1952[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[45]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,March 15,1952[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[46]FRUS,1952-1954,Vol.14[G].Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1985.
[47]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,April 16,1952[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[48]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,May 16,1952[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[49]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,June 16,1952[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[50]Historical Division of the Department of State,Research Project,No.403,November 1957[G]//State Decimal File,793B.00/11-57.Record Group 59,box 3949.National Archives II.
[51]Over-all strategic concept for our psychological operations,May 7,1952[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100302476.
[52]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,August 16,1952[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[53]NSC,“Current policies of the government of the United States of America relating to the national security”,part I,November 1,1952[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100265651.
[54]Possibility of uprisings in Communist China,undated[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100214601.
[55]John K.Knaus.Orphans of the Cold War:America and the Tibetan Struggle for Survival[M].New York:Public Affairs Press,1999.
[56]Psychological Strategy Board.A national psychological program with respect to escapees from the Soviet orbit,January15,1953[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100140956.
[57]Michael Warner.The Rise and Fall of International Security History[M].Georgetown University Press,2014.
[58]Telegram from Herderson to McGhee,No.1658,January 9,1951[G]//State Decimal File,693.93/1-951.Record Group 59,box 3003.National Archives II.
(1)学术界直接或间接涉及杜鲁门政府西藏政策的成果主要有:Robert J.McMahon,U.S.Policy toward South Asia and Tibet during the Early Cold War,Journal of Cold War Studies,Vol.8,No.3,2006;Thomas Laird,Into Tibet:The CIA’s First Atomic Spy and His Secret Expedition to Lhasa,New York:Grove Press,2002;John K.Knaus,Orphans of the Cold War:America and the Tibetan Struggle for Survival,New York:Public Affairs Press,1999;Zhai Qiang,The Dragon,the Lion,and the Eagle:Chinese-British-American Relations,1949-1958,Ohio Kent:The Kent State University Press,1994;梅·戈尔斯坦著《喇嘛王国的覆灭》,杜永彬译,中国藏学出版社2005年版;白建才《论冷战期间美国对西藏隐蔽行动战略的特点》,《武汉大学学报》(人文科学版)2013年第1期;胡岩《解放战争时期中美关系中的西藏问题》,《中共中央党校学报》2011年第1期;程早霞、李晔《一九四九年前后美国中情局谍员秘密入藏探析》,《历史研究》2009年第5期;程早霞《50年代美国的西藏政策及其秘密行动》,《史林》2008年第2期;郭永虎、李晔《美国中央情报局在中国西藏的准军事行动新探(1949-1969)》,《当代中国史研究》2006年第5期。
[2]NSC10/2,A Report to the National Security Council,June 18,1948[G]//Digital National Security Archive(DNSA).Document Number:PD00028.Michigan:ProQuest Information and Learning Company,2015.
[3]Foreign Relations of the United States(FRUS),1949,Vol.9[G].Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1974.
[4]Telegram from Stuart to Acheson,No.1393,June 28,1949[G]//State Decimal File,893.01/6-2849.Record Group59,box 15.National Archives II.College Park,Maryland.
[5]Telegram from Henderson to Acheson,No.888,August 5,1949[G]//State Decimal File,893.00/8-549.Record Group 59,box 15.National Archives II.
[6]Memorandum from Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Foreign Office,September 15,1949[G]//FO 371/76315.UK National Archives.Kew,London.
[7]Memorandum from Charles L.Bolte to US Army Chief of Staff,“Possible utilization of$75,000,000for the‘General Area’of China”,November 16,1949[G]//Records of the Army Staff,Correspondence,TS Decimal Files,Psy War 091.412TS,Record Group 319,box 1.National Archives II.
[8]CIA intelligence memorandum,“Possible emergency demands for US military aid”,No.255,December 9,1949[G]//Declassified Documents Reference System(DDRS).Document Number:CK3100330758.
[9]A report by an ad hoc committee to JCS,“Program of assistance for the general area of China”,January 16,1950[G]//Declassified Documents Reference System(DDRS).Document Number:CK3100399208.
[10]Memorandum of Conversation between Sprous and Mr.Graves,December 21,1949[G]//State Decimal File,893.00/12-2149.Record Group 59,box 15.National Archives II.
[11]Memorandum of Conversation between Dean Acheson and Lowell Thomas,February 17,1950[G]//Dean Acheson Papers,box 65.Harry S.Truman Library.Independence,Missouri.
[12]Telegram from Richardson to the Foreign Office,“Indian Mission Report”,January 15,1950[G]//FO 371/84453.UK National Archives.
[13]A report to the president,“The Foreign Information Program and Psychological Warfare Planning”,NSC 59/1,March 9,1950[G]//DNSA.Document Number:PD00160.
[14]NSC,“Current policies of the government of the United States of America relating to the national security”,part II,November 1,1952[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100265653.
[15]CIA,“Review of the World Situation”,CIA 3-50,March 15,1950[G]//Papers of Harry S.Truman,President’s Secretary’s Files,National Security Council folder,box 207.Harry S.Truman Library.
[16]Memorandum for NSC,“Supplemental budget estimate for the information and education exchange program”,May 29,1950[G]//Papers of Harry S.Truman,President’s Secretary’s Files,National Security Council folder,box 207.Harry S.Truman Library.
[17]Memorandum form CIA to the president,“Comments on Mao Tse-tung’s speech to the Chinese Communist Party Central Committee”,June 19,1950[G]//Papers of Harry S.Truman,President’s Secretary’s Files,National Security Council folder,box 207.Harry S.Truman Library.
[18]Report to the NSC,“A plan for national psychological warfare”,NSC 74,July 10,1950[G]//DNSA.Document Number:PD002000.
[19]CIA,“Situation summary”,July 27,1950[G]//Presidential Papers,President’s Secretary’s Files,Situation Summaries folder,box 211.Harry S.Truman Library.
[20]CIA,“Situation Report”,August 10,1950[G]//Presidential Papers,President’s Secretary’s Files,Situation Summaries folder,box 211.Harry S.Truman Library.
[21]CIA,“Situation Report”,September 15,1950[G]//Presidential Papers,President’s Secretary’s Files,Situation Summaries folder,box 211.Harry S.Truman Library.
[22]Memorandum for record on the Joint Intelligence Indications Committee findings for the meeting held October,25 1950,October 26,1950[G]//Records of Headquarters,United States Air Force(Air Staff),Records of Top Secret Cables and Controls Division,Record Group 341,Folder 2-16600-2-16699,box 53.National Archives II.
[23]Memorandum from the Department of State to the President,“Summary of telegrams pertaining to China’s invasion of Tibet and Tibet trade with India”,October 30,1950[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100067985.
[24]FRUS,1950,Vol.6[G].Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1976.
[25]Telegram from Henderson to Acheson,No.1072,November 3,1950[G]//State Decimal File,793B.00/11-350.Record Group 59,box 4226.National Archives II.
[26]Memorandum for director of central intelligence,“Soviet AOB and Significant Air Developments,25October-1November 1950”,November 2,1950[G]//Records of Headquarters,United States Air Force(Air Staff),Records of Top Secret Cables and Controls Division,Record Group 341,Folder 2-16800-2-16899.box 53.National Archives II.
[27]Summary of telegrams,November 13,1950[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100262776.
[28]CIA,“Review of the World situation”,CIA 11-50,November 15,1950[G]//Presidential Papers,President’s Secretary’s Files,Situation Summaries folder,box 211.Harry S.Truman Library.
[29]US-UK Washington Conversations,December 4,1950[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100343914.
[30]CIA,“Situation summary”,December 15,1950[G]//Presidential Papers,President’s Secretary’s Files,Situation Summaries folder,box 211.Harry S.Truman Library.
[31]Memorandum from Clubb to Rusk,“Possible American Reaction to Chinese Communist Intervention in Korea”,December14,1950[G]//Records of the Department of State,Top Secret Subject Files,1945-1950.China Affairs,Record Group 59,TS 950Korea,November-December,box 18.National Archives II.
[32]Memorandum of conversation,“Report of senators Green and Ferguson on their round-the-world trip”,January 9,1951[G]//Dean Acheson Papers,box 65.Harry S.Truman Library.
[33]A report to the NSC,“The position of the United States with respect to South Asia”,January 5,1951[G]//NSC 98,DNSA.Document Number:PD00241.
[34]Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense,“Review of the current world situation and ability of the forces being maintained to meet United States commitments”,January 15,1951[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100372322.
[35]Note by Joint Secretariat to JCS,“Estimate of the Scale and Nature of the Immediate Communist Threat to Security of the United States”,JCS 1924/49,February 19,1951[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100362376.
[36]Basic issue on the use of U.S.armed forces to counter further soviet or satellite aggression,March 1,1951[G]//DDRS,Document Number:CK3100326403.
[37]Memorandum from Clubb to Merchant,“Organization of Task Force for Work with‘Third Force’Elements”,April 25,1951[G]//State Decimal Files,793.00/4-2551,Record Group 59,box 4198.National Archives II.
[38]CIA office of current intelligence,Daily Digest,No.49420,November 9,1951[G]//DNSA.Document Number:CI00828.
[39]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,December 15,1951[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[40]Foreign Relations of the United States(FRUS),1951,Vol.7[G].Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1983.
[41]Intelligence Memorandum,“The‘Liberation’of Tibet”,June 16,1951[G]//DNSA.Document Number:CI00759.
[42]National Intelligence Estimate,“India’s position in the East-West conflict”,NIE-23,September 4,1951[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100165584.
[43]CIA office of current intelligence,“Current intelligence review”,Vol.I,No.15,November 21,1951[G]//DNSA.Document Number:CI00832.
[44]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,February 15,1952[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[45]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,March 15,1952[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[46]FRUS,1952-1954,Vol.14[G].Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1985.
[47]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,April 16,1952[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[48]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,May 16,1952[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[49]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,June 16,1952[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[50]Historical Division of the Department of State,Research Project,No.403,November 1957[G]//State Decimal File,793B.00/11-57.Record Group 59,box 3949.National Archives II.
[51]Over-all strategic concept for our psychological operations,May 7,1952[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100302476.
[52]Monthly Report from the Officer in Charge of Indian Mission in Lhasa to the Political Officer in Sikkim,August 16,1952[G]//FO 371/99659.UK National Archives.
[53]NSC,“Current policies of the government of the United States of America relating to the national security”,part I,November 1,1952[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100265651.
[54]Possibility of uprisings in Communist China,undated[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100214601.
[55]John K.Knaus.Orphans of the Cold War:America and the Tibetan Struggle for Survival[M].New York:Public Affairs Press,1999.
[56]Psychological Strategy Board.A national psychological program with respect to escapees from the Soviet orbit,January15,1953[G]//DDRS.Document Number:CK3100140956.
[57]Michael Warner.The Rise and Fall of International Security History[M].Georgetown University Press,2014.
[58]Telegram from Herderson to McGhee,No.1658,January 9,1951[G]//State Decimal File,693.93/1-951.Record Group 59,box 3003.National Archives II.
(1)学术界直接或间接涉及杜鲁门政府西藏政策的成果主要有:Robert J.McMahon,U.S.Policy toward South Asia and Tibet during the Early Cold War,Journal of Cold War Studies,Vol.8,No.3,2006;Thomas Laird,Into Tibet:The CIA’s First Atomic Spy and His Secret Expedition to Lhasa,New York:Grove Press,2002;John K.Knaus,Orphans of the Cold War:America and the Tibetan Struggle for Survival,New York:Public Affairs Press,1999;Zhai Qiang,The Dragon,the Lion,and the Eagle:Chinese-British-American Relations,1949-1958,Ohio Kent:The Kent State University Press,1994;梅·戈尔斯坦著《喇嘛王国的覆灭》,杜永彬译,中国藏学出版社2005年版;白建才《论冷战期间美国对西藏隐蔽行动战略的特点》,《武汉大学学报》(人文科学版)2013年第1期;胡岩《解放战争时期中美关系中的西藏问题》,《中共中央党校学报》2011年第1期;程早霞、李晔《一九四九年前后美国中情局谍员秘密入藏探析》,《历史研究》2009年第5期;程早霞《50年代美国的西藏政策及其秘密行动》,《史林》2008年第2期;郭永虎、李晔《美国中央情报局在中国西藏的准军事行动新探(1949-1969)》,《当代中国史研究》2006年第5期。