1964年美军首次印度洋部署的历史考察
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摘要
20世纪60年代,印度洋地区形势紧张与西方国家力量薄弱的矛盾为美国军力进入印度洋提供了强大动力,但1964年美军首次进入印度洋的部署主要是美国政府推动和主导的结果,其政治意义大于军事意义,实质是干涉主义思想指导下的"海军外交"。但美军首次在印度洋的部署,既未顾及地区国家的真实立场,又未预料到军事资源有限的形势发展,最终以失败而告终。它反映了印度洋地缘政治格局的破碎和复杂,也说明了美国初次进入印度洋时的谨慎和困难。
In the 1960 s,the tense situation in different locations and the decline of western power in the Indian Ocean area made the U. S. military presence necessary. However,the Concord Squadron,the first U. S. military deployment in this region,was mainly initiated by the U. S. administration rather than the military. The essence of this deployment is naval diplomacy. However,while planning carefully, the U. S. administration did not consider the real standings of local nations,and expected the deterioration of Vietnam situation. The first deployment quickly ended in failure, which illustrates the complicated geopolitical situation and the difficulties the U. S. faced when entering the Indian Ocean.
In the 1960 s,the tense situation in different locations and the decline of western power in the Indian Ocean area made the U. S. military presence necessary. However,the Concord Squadron,the first U. S. military deployment in this region,was mainly initiated by the U. S. administration rather than the military. The essence of this deployment is naval diplomacy. However,while planning carefully, the U. S. administration did not consider the real standings of local nations,and expected the deterioration of Vietnam situation. The first deployment quickly ended in failure, which illustrates the complicated geopolitical situation and the difficulties the U. S. faced when entering the Indian Ocean.
引文
(1)关于这两种观点的争论,参见Walter K. Andersen,“Emerging Security Issues in the Indian Ocean:An American Perspective”,M. P. Awati,“Emerging Security Issues in the Indian Ocean:An Indian Perspective”,in Selig S. Harrison,K.Subrahmanyam(ed.),Superpower Rivalry in the Indian Ocean:Indian and American Perspectives,New York:Oxford University Press,1989,以及[印]克·拉简德拉·辛格著,周水玉、李淼译:《印度洋的政治》,北京:商务印书馆1980年版。
(1)[美]乔治·贝尔著,吴征宇译:《美国海权百年》,北京:人民出版社2014年版,第317—365页。
(2)如美国国务卿杜勒斯就曾提出,冷战下两极尖锐的意识形态对立不容许有中间地带,独立原则是为共产主义渗透打开了方便之门。
(3)Gary Sick,“The Evolution of U. S. Strategy Toward the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf Regions”,in Alvin Z. Rubinstein,The Great Game:Rivalry in the Persian Gulf and South Asia,New York:Praeger,1983,p. 51.
(1)“The Department of State to the British Embassy”,FRUS,1945,Vol. VI,The British Commonwealth,the Far East,pp. 206-210.
(2)张威:《1971年南亚危机与美巴关系》,华东师范大学2009年博士论文,第29—31页。
(3)Gary Sick,“The Evolution of U. S. Strategy Toward the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf Regions”,in Alvin Z. Rubinstein,The Great Game:Rivalry in the Persian Gulf and South Asia,New York:Praeger,1983,p. 51.
(4)[印]克·拉简德拉·辛格著,周水玉、李淼译:《印度洋的政治》,北京:商务印书馆1980年版,第32页。
(1)Robert J. McMahon,The Cold War on the Periphery:The United States,India and Pakistan,New York:Columbia University,1994,pp. 272—273.
(2)[美]乔治·贝尔著,吴征宇译:《美国海权百年》,北京:人民出版社2014年版,第445—446页。不过,美军干涉行动的主要责任部门是1961年成立的打击司令部(Strike Command),由陆、空军部分部队组成,负责在中东、非洲南部、南亚地区的所有防务活动。就美国国内政治而言,海军处于与之竞争的地位。Kimbriel Armistead Mitchell,American Strategic Policy for the Indian Ocean Area,1970-1980,London School of Economics and Political Science Ph. D. Dissertation,pp. 49-50.
(3)“Memorandum of a Conversation,Mid—Ocean Club,Bermuda,March 22,1957,4:25 p. m.”,FRUS,1955-1957,Vol. XXVII,Western Europe and Canada,pp. 749-751.
(1)Robert J. McMahon,The Cold War on the Periphery:The United States,India and Pakistan,New York:Columbia University,1994,pp. 273-277.
(2)“Memorandum for the Record,April 25,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Volume XIX,South Asia,pp. 562-564.
(3)“Memorandum for the Record,August 12,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,pp. 635-636.
(4)“Memorandum of Conversation,December 20,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,p. 710.
(5)张威:《1971年南亚危机与美巴关系》,华东师范大学2009年博士论文,第37页。
(6)“Memorandum for the Record,April 25,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Volume XIX,South Asia,p. 564.
(7)“Telegram From the Embassy in Pakistan to the Department of State,August 8,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Volume XIX,South Asia,pp. 629-631.
(1)“Memorandum for the Record,August 12,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,p. 637.
(2)“Telegram From the Embassy in Portugal to the Department of State,September 6,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,pp. 672-676
(3)“Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to President Kennedy,August 9,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,p. 636.
(4)"Memorandum From Secretary of Defense McNamara to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff(Taylor),August 16,1963",FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,p. 654.
(1)"The Secretary of Defense to the Secretary of State,Oct. 2,1963",National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(2)William Stivers,America’s Confrontation with Revolutionary Change in the Middle East,1948-83,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,1986,p. 30.
(3)阿拉伯联合共和国(简称“阿联”)是1958年2月1日由埃及与叙利亚合组的泛阿拉伯国家。1958年3月8日,也门穆塔瓦基利亚王国(后来的阿拉伯也门共和国)以合众的形式加入,整个联盟因此更名为“阿拉伯合众国”(United Arab States)。由于埃及的个别霸权主义政策,1961年9月28日叙利亚宣布退出,12月北也门也退出,阿联虽然解体了,但埃及仍然保留这个国号直到1972年为止。https://baike. baidu. com/item/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%81%94%E5%90%88%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD/844177,登录时间:2018年5月7日。
(4)“Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to the President’s Special Assistant for National Security Affairs(Bundy),October 17,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,p. 636.
(1)“Memorandum From Secretary of Defense McNamara to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff(Taylor),November 18,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,pp. 692-693.
(2)Ibid.
(3)“From New Delhi to the Secretary of State,November 12,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(4)“CINCSTRIKE UNN FROM DEWDELHI,December 6,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(1)“Joint State-USIA Message,December 9,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(2)“Department of State to Embassy NEW DELHI,December 13,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA;“Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in India,December 19,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,pp. 707-709.
(3)“For the Secretary from Ball and Johnson,Dec. 17,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(4)“Telegram From the Embassy in India to the Department of State,December 19,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,pp. 720-722.
(5)“Embassy NEW DELHI To the Department of State,Dec. 13,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(1)“From Colombo,December 16,1936”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(2)“From Embassy Colombo To Secretary of State,Dec. 16,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(3)“Eyes only for acting secretary from secretary,December 17,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(4)Will Fowler,Britain’s Secret War:The Indonesian Confrontation 1962-1966,Osprey,2006.
(5)“From Djakarta to the Secretary of State,December 17,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(6)“For Ambassador Jones,Dec. 31,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(7)“Department of State to Djakarta,Jan. 7,1964”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(1)“From Embassy Djakarta to the Department of State,Feb. 19,1964”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(2)“Memorandum of Conversation,Noon,December 20,1963”,“Memorandum for the Record,December 20,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,pp. 710-717,719-720.
(3)“From Moscow to Secretary of State,January 10,1964”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(4)Alvin J. Cottrell,Walter F. Hahn,Naval Race or Arms Control in the Indian Ocean,New York:National Strategy Information Center,Inc.,p. 58
(1)“From Tananarive to the Secretary of State,December 12,1963”,“For the Secretary From Ball and Johnson,Dec. 17,1963”,“From Jidda to the Secretary of State,Dec. 17,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(2)“Memorandum from Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to President Johnson,March 16,1964”,FRUS,1964-1968, Vol. XXI, Near East Region, Arabian Peninsula, https://history. state. gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v21/d35,visited on Dec. 29,2018.
(3)Ibid.
(4)“National Security Action Memorandum No. 289,March 19,1964”,DNSA.
(5)“From CINCPAC To RUCKHC/CINCLANT”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(6)“Concord Squadron Press Guidance,April 3,1964”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(7)“Memorandum from Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to President Johnson,March 16,1964”,FRUS,1964-1968, Vol. XXI, Near East Region, Arabian Peninsula, https://history. state. gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v21/d35,visited on Dec. 29,2018.
(1)[美]乔治·贝尔著,吴征宇译:《美国海权百年》,北京:人民出版社2014年版,第454—465页。
(2)Kimbriel Armistead Mitchell,American Strategic Policy for the Indian Ocean Area,1970-1980,London School of Economics and Political Science Ph. D. Dissertation,p. 59.
(1)[美]乔治·贝尔著,吴征宇译:《美国海权百年》,北京:人民出版社2014年版,第317—365页。
(2)如美国国务卿杜勒斯就曾提出,冷战下两极尖锐的意识形态对立不容许有中间地带,独立原则是为共产主义渗透打开了方便之门。
(3)Gary Sick,“The Evolution of U. S. Strategy Toward the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf Regions”,in Alvin Z. Rubinstein,The Great Game:Rivalry in the Persian Gulf and South Asia,New York:Praeger,1983,p. 51.
(1)“The Department of State to the British Embassy”,FRUS,1945,Vol. VI,The British Commonwealth,the Far East,pp. 206-210.
(2)张威:《1971年南亚危机与美巴关系》,华东师范大学2009年博士论文,第29—31页。
(3)Gary Sick,“The Evolution of U. S. Strategy Toward the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf Regions”,in Alvin Z. Rubinstein,The Great Game:Rivalry in the Persian Gulf and South Asia,New York:Praeger,1983,p. 51.
(4)[印]克·拉简德拉·辛格著,周水玉、李淼译:《印度洋的政治》,北京:商务印书馆1980年版,第32页。
(1)Robert J. McMahon,The Cold War on the Periphery:The United States,India and Pakistan,New York:Columbia University,1994,pp. 272—273.
(2)[美]乔治·贝尔著,吴征宇译:《美国海权百年》,北京:人民出版社2014年版,第445—446页。不过,美军干涉行动的主要责任部门是1961年成立的打击司令部(Strike Command),由陆、空军部分部队组成,负责在中东、非洲南部、南亚地区的所有防务活动。就美国国内政治而言,海军处于与之竞争的地位。Kimbriel Armistead Mitchell,American Strategic Policy for the Indian Ocean Area,1970-1980,London School of Economics and Political Science Ph. D. Dissertation,pp. 49-50.
(3)“Memorandum of a Conversation,Mid—Ocean Club,Bermuda,March 22,1957,4:25 p. m.”,FRUS,1955-1957,Vol. XXVII,Western Europe and Canada,pp. 749-751.
(1)Robert J. McMahon,The Cold War on the Periphery:The United States,India and Pakistan,New York:Columbia University,1994,pp. 273-277.
(2)“Memorandum for the Record,April 25,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Volume XIX,South Asia,pp. 562-564.
(3)“Memorandum for the Record,August 12,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,pp. 635-636.
(4)“Memorandum of Conversation,December 20,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,p. 710.
(5)张威:《1971年南亚危机与美巴关系》,华东师范大学2009年博士论文,第37页。
(6)“Memorandum for the Record,April 25,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Volume XIX,South Asia,p. 564.
(7)“Telegram From the Embassy in Pakistan to the Department of State,August 8,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Volume XIX,South Asia,pp. 629-631.
(1)“Memorandum for the Record,August 12,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,p. 637.
(2)“Telegram From the Embassy in Portugal to the Department of State,September 6,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,pp. 672-676
(3)“Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to President Kennedy,August 9,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,p. 636.
(4)"Memorandum From Secretary of Defense McNamara to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff(Taylor),August 16,1963",FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,p. 654.
(1)"The Secretary of Defense to the Secretary of State,Oct. 2,1963",National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(2)William Stivers,America’s Confrontation with Revolutionary Change in the Middle East,1948-83,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,1986,p. 30.
(3)阿拉伯联合共和国(简称“阿联”)是1958年2月1日由埃及与叙利亚合组的泛阿拉伯国家。1958年3月8日,也门穆塔瓦基利亚王国(后来的阿拉伯也门共和国)以合众的形式加入,整个联盟因此更名为“阿拉伯合众国”(United Arab States)。由于埃及的个别霸权主义政策,1961年9月28日叙利亚宣布退出,12月北也门也退出,阿联虽然解体了,但埃及仍然保留这个国号直到1972年为止。https://baike. baidu. com/item/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%81%94%E5%90%88%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD/844177,登录时间:2018年5月7日。
(4)“Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to the President’s Special Assistant for National Security Affairs(Bundy),October 17,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,p. 636.
(1)“Memorandum From Secretary of Defense McNamara to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff(Taylor),November 18,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,pp. 692-693.
(2)Ibid.
(3)“From New Delhi to the Secretary of State,November 12,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(4)“CINCSTRIKE UNN FROM DEWDELHI,December 6,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(1)“Joint State-USIA Message,December 9,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(2)“Department of State to Embassy NEW DELHI,December 13,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA;“Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in India,December 19,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,pp. 707-709.
(3)“For the Secretary from Ball and Johnson,Dec. 17,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(4)“Telegram From the Embassy in India to the Department of State,December 19,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,pp. 720-722.
(5)“Embassy NEW DELHI To the Department of State,Dec. 13,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(1)“From Colombo,December 16,1936”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(2)“From Embassy Colombo To Secretary of State,Dec. 16,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(3)“Eyes only for acting secretary from secretary,December 17,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(4)Will Fowler,Britain’s Secret War:The Indonesian Confrontation 1962-1966,Osprey,2006.
(5)“From Djakarta to the Secretary of State,December 17,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(6)“For Ambassador Jones,Dec. 31,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(7)“Department of State to Djakarta,Jan. 7,1964”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(1)“From Embassy Djakarta to the Department of State,Feb. 19,1964”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(2)“Memorandum of Conversation,Noon,December 20,1963”,“Memorandum for the Record,December 20,1963”,FRUS,1961-1963,Vol. XIX,South Asia,pp. 710-717,719-720.
(3)“From Moscow to Secretary of State,January 10,1964”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(4)Alvin J. Cottrell,Walter F. Hahn,Naval Race or Arms Control in the Indian Ocean,New York:National Strategy Information Center,Inc.,p. 58
(1)“From Tananarive to the Secretary of State,December 12,1963”,“For the Secretary From Ball and Johnson,Dec. 17,1963”,“From Jidda to the Secretary of State,Dec. 17,1963”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(2)“Memorandum from Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to President Johnson,March 16,1964”,FRUS,1964-1968, Vol. XXI, Near East Region, Arabian Peninsula, https://history. state. gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v21/d35,visited on Dec. 29,2018.
(3)Ibid.
(4)“National Security Action Memorandum No. 289,March 19,1964”,DNSA.
(5)“From CINCPAC To RUCKHC/CINCLANT”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(6)“Concord Squadron Press Guidance,April 3,1964”,National Security Files,Country File,India,Indian Ocean Task Force,Vol. 1,DNSA.
(7)“Memorandum from Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to President Johnson,March 16,1964”,FRUS,1964-1968, Vol. XXI, Near East Region, Arabian Peninsula, https://history. state. gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v21/d35,visited on Dec. 29,2018.
(1)[美]乔治·贝尔著,吴征宇译:《美国海权百年》,北京:人民出版社2014年版,第454—465页。
(2)Kimbriel Armistead Mitchell,American Strategic Policy for the Indian Ocean Area,1970-1980,London School of Economics and Political Science Ph. D. Dissertation,p. 59.