冷战与美国人才吸引机制的形成(1945—1960)
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摘要
冷战直接催生了美国人才吸引机制的形成,不仅使二战时期美国的"人才赤字"问题趋于常态化,而且在《1952年移民法》中对吸引人才的双轨制产生双重影响。在难民问题上,美国表面上打着"人道主义"旗号,但在实际操作上却优先安置各类专业技术人才。在对外文化交流方面,美国在加紧宣传其政治价值观的同时,积极吸引外国留学生和访问学者赴美深造,然后又适时创造条件,允许美国需要的人才永久定居。通过这些措施,美国确立了一整套人才吸引机制,奠定了20世纪后期人才吸引政策的基础。
The Cold War became the provenance of the US mechanism for talent attraction.Not only did it normalize the"talent deficit"of the US during World War II,but also had a twofold effect on the two-track policy to attract talents in the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952.With regard to refugees,different kinds of professionals were actually given priority by the US government in the name of humanitarianism. With regard to cultural communications with foreign countries,the US government cranked up the promotion of its political values while attracting overseas students and visiting scholars;it then created timely conditions for needed talents to stay permanently.By all these actions,the US has set up a whole talent mechanism which laid the foundation for the country's talent policy in the late 20 th century.
The Cold War became the provenance of the US mechanism for talent attraction.Not only did it normalize the"talent deficit"of the US during World War II,but also had a twofold effect on the two-track policy to attract talents in the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952.With regard to refugees,different kinds of professionals were actually given priority by the US government in the name of humanitarianism. With regard to cultural communications with foreign countries,the US government cranked up the promotion of its political values while attracting overseas students and visiting scholars;it then created timely conditions for needed talents to stay permanently.By all these actions,the US has set up a whole talent mechanism which laid the foundation for the country's talent policy in the late 20 th century.
引文
1 Michael C.LeMay,Guarding the Gates:Immigration and National Security,Westport,CT:Praeger Security International,2006,pp.146-148;Vernon M.Briggs,Jr.,Mass Immigration and the National Interest:Policy Directions of the New Century,New York:M.E.Sharpe,Inc.,2003,pp.110-114;Bill Ong Hing,Defining America Through Immigration Policy,Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2004,pp.73-74.
2 Paul Spickard,Almost All Aliens:Immigration,Race,and Colonialism in American History and Identity,New York:Taylor&Francis Group,2007,pp.328-331.
3 Charles P.Schwartz,Jr.,“American Immigration Policy,"Columbia Law Review,vol.55,no.3(Mar.1955),pp.311-341;Marion T.Bennett,“The Immigration and Nationality(McCarran-Walter)Act of 1952,as Amended to 1965,"Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,
1 vol.367,Sep.1966,p.133;Idean Salehyan and Marc R.Rosenblum,“International Relations,Domestic Politics,and Asylum Admissions in the United States,"Political Research Quarterly,vol.61,no.1(Mar.2008),pp.104-121.
1 Ann Markusen,“Dismantling the Cold War Economy,"World Policy Journal,vol.9,no.3(Summer1992),pp.389-390;Joel Isaac,“The Human Sciences in Cold War America,"The Historical Journal,vol.50,no.3(Sep.2007),p.730.
2 文中百分比为笔者计算所得。U.S.Department of Commerce,Bureau of Census,Statistical Abstract of the United States,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1963,pp.262-263;U.S.Department of Commerce,Bureau of Census,Historical Statistics of the United States:Colonial Times to 1970,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1975,pp.8,105,385-386.
3 Vannevar Bush,Science,the Endless Frontier:A Report to the President on a Program for Post-War Scientific Research,Washington,D.C.:National Science Foundation,1965,pp.7,24-25,31-33.
1 Vannevar Bush,Science,the Endless Frontier:A Report to the President on a Program for Post-War Scientific Research,p.xvi.
2 National Science Foundation,Scientific Manpower-1956:Significant Developments,View,and Statistics,NSF-57-23,Arlington,VA:National Science Foundation,1957,p.33.必须指出的是,这个时期,美国每年授予的博士学位数量根本无法满足需要。(详见梁茂信:《1950—1980年外国留学生移民美国的趋势分析》,《世界历史》2011年第1期)
3 National Science Foundation,The Fifteenth Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ended in June 30,1965,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1966,p.9.
4 Kelly Moore,Disrupting Science:Social Movements,American Scientists,and the Politics of the Military,1945-1975,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2008,pp.29-30.
5 National Science Foundation,The First Annual Report of the National Science Foundation:1950-51,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1952,p.18.
6 National Science Foundation,The Sixth Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ended in June 30,1956,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1957,p.66.
7 National Science Foundation,The Eighth Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ended in June 30,1958,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1959,pp.xi,3.
8 W.Lee Hansen,Claus Moser and David Brown,“The Economics of Scientific and Engineering Manpower,"The Journal of Human Resources,vol.2,no.2(Spring 1967),pp.192,200.
9 United States,Department of Justice,Immigration and Naturalization Service,Annual Report of the Immigration and Naturalization Service,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1968,p.47.
Gregory McLauchlan and Gregory Hooks,“Last of the Dinosaurs?Big Weapons,Big Science,and the American State from Hiroshima to the End of the Cold War,"The Sociological Quarterly,vol.36,no.4 (Autumn 1995),pp.751-752;Slava Gerovitch,“Mathematical Machines'of the Cold War:Soviet Computing,American Cybernetics and Ideological Disputes in the Early 1950s,"Social Studies of
1 Science,vol.31,no.2(Apr.2001),pp.277-278.
1 Kelly Moore,Disrupting Science:Social Movements,American Scientists,and the Politics of the Military,1945-1975,pp.29-30.
2 到60年代末,美国政府雇佣的物理学科学家和工程师超过3.1万人。若将其雇佣的气象学、海洋学、航空学、化学和生物学等领域的科技人才计算在内,人数更多。(David Kaiser,“Cold War Requisitions,Scientific Manpower,and the Production of American Physicists after World War II,"Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences,vol.33,no.1,2002,p.151)
3 百分比为笔者计算所得。U.S.Department of Commerce,Bureau of Census,Historical Statistics of the United States:Colonial Times to 1970,p.1116.
4 Gregory McLauchlan and Gregory Hooks,“Last of the Dinosaurs?Big Weapons,Big Science,and the American State from Hiroshima to the End of the Cold War,"pp.751-752,754.
5 National Science Foundation,The First Annual Report of the National Science Foundation:1950-51,p.18 ;Nancy Edelman Phillips,“Militarism and Grass-Roots Involvement in the Military-Industrial Complex,"The Journal of Conflict Resolution,vol.17,no.4(Dec.1973),p.626.
6 National Science Foundation,Scientific Manpower-1956:Significant Developments,View,and Statistics,NSF-57-23,p.31.
7 Joel Isaac,“The Human Sciences in Cold War America,"p.730.
8 Gregory McLauchlan and Gregory Hooks,“Last of the Dinosaurs?Big Weapons,Big Science,and the American State from Hiroshima to the End of the Cold War,"p.756.
1 百分比为笔者计算所得。参见David Kaiser,“Cold War Requisitions,Scientific Manpower,and the Production of American Physicists after World War II,"pp.132-133,135-136.
2 “军事工业复合体“是以前国内外学界常见的表述,但它仅仅涵盖了军事与工业之间的关系,没有体现出政府和高校的作用。于是,有的美国学者提出了“军事工业学术复合体“和“军事政府工业复合体“等概念。(Trevor J.Barnes and Matthew Farish,“Between Regions:Science,Militarism and American Geography from World War to Cold War,"Annals of the Association of American Geographers,vol.96,no.4(Dec.2006),p.811;Gregory McLauchlan and Gregory Hooks,“Last of the Dinosaurs?Big Weapons,Big Science,and the American State from Hiroshima to the End of the Cold War,"p.757)
3 Ann Markusen,“Dismantling the Cold War Economy,"pp.389-391.
4 David Hounshell,“The Cold War,RAND,and the Generation of Knowledge,1946-1962,"Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences,vol.27,no.2,1997,pp.238-239.
5 Barney Warf,“The Pentagon and the Service Sector,"Economic Geography,vol.69,no.2(Apr.1993),p.123;James L.Clayton,“The Impact of the Cold War on the Economies of California and Utah,1946-1965,"Pacific Historical Review,vol.36,no.4(Nov.1967),pp.449-473.
6 Vannevar Bush,Science,the Endless Frontier:A Report to the President on a Program for Post-War Scientific Research,p.x.
7 U.S.Department of Commerce,Bureau of Census,Statistical Abstract of the United States,p.543.
8 Trevor J.Barnes and Matthew Farish,“Between Regions:Science,Militarism and American Geography from World War to Cold War,"p.810.
1 Peter Kwong and Dusanka Miscevic,Chinese America:The Untold Story of America's Oldest New Community,New York:The New Press,2005,p.229.
2 U.S.Congress,“Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952:Legislative History,"in United States Code,Congressional and Administrative News,82nd Congress,2nd Session,vol.2,St.Paul,MINN.:West Publishing Co.,1952,p.1691.
3 Hans Morgenthau,In Defense of the National Interest:A Critical Examination of American Foreign Policy,New York:Alfred A.Knopf,1951;George F.Kennan,American Diplomacy,1900-1950,Chicago:Chicago University Press,1951.
4 U.S.Congress,House of Representatives,Hearings Before the President's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1952,p.2.
5 U.S.Congress,“Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952:Legislative History,"pp.1694,1697-1698.
1 Vernon M.Briggs,Jr.,Immigration Policy and the American Labor,Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1984,p.59.
2 U.S.Congress,“Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952:Legislative History,"pp.1697-1698,1705.
3 Michael C.LeMay,Guarding the Gates:Immigration and National Security,p.148.
4 关于“亚太三角区“的地理范围及各国年度限额,详见梁茂信:《美国移民政策研究》,长春:东北师范大学出版社,1996年,第164—165、272—278页。
5 Paul Spickard,Almost All Aliens:Immigration,Race,and Colonialism in American History and Identity,p.328.
6 Gerald P.Walsh,Jr.,ed.,Naturalization Laws,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1981,pp.241-242.
1 威廉·富布赖特:《帝国的代价》,简新芽、龚乃绪、李松林译,北京:世界知识出版社,1991年,第38 、40、48页。
2 Charles P.Schwartz,Jr.,“American Immigration Policy,"p.320.
3 U.S.Congressional Research Service,Congressional Research Service Report for Congress:A Brief History of U.S.Immigration Policy,Washington,D.C.:The Library of Congress,January 25,1991,p.14.http://www.ndu.edu/library/docs/91.170.doc.pdf.
4 John Higham,“American Immigration Policy in Historical Perspective,"Law and Contemporary Problems,vol.21,no.2(Spring 1956),p.234.
5 Louis L.Jaffe,“The Philosophy of Our Immigration Law,"Law and Contemporary Problems,vol.21,no.2(Spring 1956),p.365.
6 Vernon M.Briggs,Jr.,Immigration Policy and the American Labor,p.59.
7 张艳蓓、梁茂信:《外来移民在美国国家利益中的地位变迁》,《史学集刊》2013年第5期。
8 Michael Barnett,“Evolution without Progress?Humanitarianism in a World of Hurt,"International Organization,vol.63,no.4(Fall 2009),pp.623-624.
1 梁茂信:《美国移民政策研究》,第45—46页。
2 Michael Barnett,“Evolution without Progress?Humanitarianism in a World of Hurt,"p.623.
3 Paul Spickard,Almost All Aliens:Immigration,Race,and Colonialism in American History and Identity,p.324.
4 Richard H.Heindel,“The Alien Scientist and the War,"Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,vol.223(Sep.1942),pp.145-147.
5 Michel Bar-Zohar,The Hunt for German Scientists,London:Arthur Barker Limited,1967,pp.11,36-37,153.
1 John Gimbel,Science,Technology,and Reparations:Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany,Stanford,CA:Stanford University Press,1990,pp.5,17;“U.S.Policy and German Scientists:The Early Cold War,"Political Science Quarterly,vol.101,no.3,1986,pp.437-438,443-446,450-451.
2 Clarence G.Lasby,Project Paperclip:German Scientists and the Cold War,New York:Atheneum,1971,pp.5,12-13.
3 Michel Bar-Zohar,The Hunt for German Scientists,p.204.
4 Elizabeth J.Harper and Roland F.Chase,eds.,Immigration Laws of the United States,Indianapolis:The Bobbs-Merrill Company,Inc.,1975,pp.20-21.
5 Peter Kwong and Dusanka Miscevic,Chinese America:The Untold Story of America's Oldest New Community,pp.228-229.
6 “Statement of Chiristopher Emmet,Executive Vice Chairman,Aid Refugee Chinese Intellectuals,Inc.,"in U.S.Congress,House of Representatives,Hearing before the President's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization,pp.209-210.
1 Samuel P.Huntington,“The Erosion of American National Interests,"Foreign Affairs,vol.76,no.5(Sep.-Oct.1997),p.30.
2 梁茂信:《现代欧美移民与民族多元化研究》,北京:商务印书馆,2011年,第199—214页。
3 Elizabeth J.Harper and Roland F.Chase,eds.,Immigration Laws of the United States,pp.30,35.
1 U.S.Immigration and Naturalization Service,Annual Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration to the Secretary of Labor,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1932.p.35.
2 Kathleen D.McCarthy,“From Cold War to Cultural Development:The International Cultural Activities of the Ford Foundation,1950-1980,"Daedalus,vol.116,no.1(Winter 1987),p.94.
3 Cora Du Bois,Foreign Students and Higher Education in the United States,Washington,D.C.:American Council on Education,1962,p.12.
4 Liping Bu,“Educational Exchange and Cultural Diplomacy in the Cold War,"Journal of American Studies,vol.33,no.3(Dec.1999),pp.395-397.
5 Jessica C.E.Gienow-Hecht,“Shame on U.S.?Academics,Cultural Transfer,and the Cold War:A Critical Review,"Diplomatic History,vol.24,no.3(Summer 2000),p.467.
6 United States General Accounting Office,Difficulties in Determining If Nuclear Training of Foreigners Contributes to Weapons Proliferation,Washington,D.C.:U.S.General Accounting Office,April 23,1979,pp.16-17,28-29,83.
1 William W.Hoffa,A History of U.S.Study Abroad:Beginnings to 1965,Carlisle,PA:The Forum on Education Abroad,2007,pp.114-115.
2 U.S.Congress,“United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948,"in United States Code,Congressional Services,80th Congress,2nd Session,vol.1,St.Paul,MINN.:West Publishing Co.,1948,pp.4-5,6,8.
3 U.S.Congress,“United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948:Legislative History,"in United States Code,Congressional Services,80th Congress,2nd Session,vol.2,p.1023.
4 Liam Kennedy and Scott Lucas,“Enduring Freedom:Public Diplomacy and U.S.Foreign Policy,"American Quarterly,vol.57,no.2(Jun.2005),p.4.
5 Jessica C.E.Gienow-Hecht,“Shame on U.S.?Academics,Cultural Transfer,and the Cold War:A Critical Review,"p.467.
6 Liam Kennedy and Scott Lucas,“Enduring Freedom:Public Diplomacy and U.S.Foreign Policy,"p.4.
7 U.S.Congress,“United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948,"p.5.
8 Charles Susskind and Lynn Schell,Exporting Technical Education:A Survey and Case Study of Foreign Professionals with U.S.Graduate Degrees,New York:Institute of International Education,1968,p.51.
1 U.S.Senate,“Exchange Visitors-Immigration Status:Senate Report,"in United States Congress,United States Code,Congressional and Administrative News,84th Congress,2nd Session,vol.2,St.Paul,MINN.:West Publishing Co.,1956,pp.2662,2665.
2 U.S.Senate,“Exchange Visitors-Immigration Status Act of 1956,"in United States Congress,United States Code,Congressional and Administrative News,84th Congress,2nd Session,vol.1,pp.289-290.
3 U.S.Senate,“Exchange Visitors-Immigration Status:Senate Report,"p.2663.
4 U.S.Congress,Senate,Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act of 1961:Report of the Committee on Foreign Relations,United States Senate on S.1154,87th Congress,1st Session,Report no.372 ,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1961,p.20.
5 梁茂信:《1950—1980年外国留学生移民美国的趋势分析》,《世界历史》2011年第1期,第67—78页。
6 在美国政府的统计中,技术移民是指“专业技术人士、技术人员和同类劳工“。这种按照职业分类的统计中,没有包括经理和业主等受过高等教育的人。百分比为笔者计算所得。(参见U.S.Department of Commerce,Bureau of Census,Historical Statistics of the United States:Colonial Times to 1970,p.110)
1 U.S.Congress,House of Representative,Committee on Government Operations,The Brain Drain into the United States of Scientists,Engineers,and Physicians:A Staff Study for the Research and Technical Programs Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1967,p.2.
2 National Science Foundation,“Scientists and Engineers from Abroad,Fiscal Years 1962and 1963,"Reviews of Data on Science Resources,NSF65-17,vol.1,no.5(July 1965),p.7.
3 Louis L.Jaffe,“The Philosophy of Our Immigration Law,"p.365.
4 National Science Foundation,“Scientists and Engineers from Abroad,Fiscal Years 1962and 1963,"p.2.
5 U.S.Congress,House of Representative,Committee on Government Operations,The Brain Drain into the United States of Scientists,Engineers,and Physicians,pp.4-5.
6 梁茂信:《“人才循环“与“美国人才流失“说:黑白颠倒的伪命题》,《世界历史》2013年第1期。
2 Paul Spickard,Almost All Aliens:Immigration,Race,and Colonialism in American History and Identity,New York:Taylor&Francis Group,2007,pp.328-331.
3 Charles P.Schwartz,Jr.,“American Immigration Policy,"Columbia Law Review,vol.55,no.3(Mar.1955),pp.311-341;Marion T.Bennett,“The Immigration and Nationality(McCarran-Walter)Act of 1952,as Amended to 1965,"Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,
1 vol.367,Sep.1966,p.133;Idean Salehyan and Marc R.Rosenblum,“International Relations,Domestic Politics,and Asylum Admissions in the United States,"Political Research Quarterly,vol.61,no.1(Mar.2008),pp.104-121.
1 Ann Markusen,“Dismantling the Cold War Economy,"World Policy Journal,vol.9,no.3(Summer1992),pp.389-390;Joel Isaac,“The Human Sciences in Cold War America,"The Historical Journal,vol.50,no.3(Sep.2007),p.730.
2 文中百分比为笔者计算所得。U.S.Department of Commerce,Bureau of Census,Statistical Abstract of the United States,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1963,pp.262-263;U.S.Department of Commerce,Bureau of Census,Historical Statistics of the United States:Colonial Times to 1970,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1975,pp.8,105,385-386.
3 Vannevar Bush,Science,the Endless Frontier:A Report to the President on a Program for Post-War Scientific Research,Washington,D.C.:National Science Foundation,1965,pp.7,24-25,31-33.
1 Vannevar Bush,Science,the Endless Frontier:A Report to the President on a Program for Post-War Scientific Research,p.xvi.
2 National Science Foundation,Scientific Manpower-1956:Significant Developments,View,and Statistics,NSF-57-23,Arlington,VA:National Science Foundation,1957,p.33.必须指出的是,这个时期,美国每年授予的博士学位数量根本无法满足需要。(详见梁茂信:《1950—1980年外国留学生移民美国的趋势分析》,《世界历史》2011年第1期)
3 National Science Foundation,The Fifteenth Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ended in June 30,1965,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1966,p.9.
4 Kelly Moore,Disrupting Science:Social Movements,American Scientists,and the Politics of the Military,1945-1975,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2008,pp.29-30.
5 National Science Foundation,The First Annual Report of the National Science Foundation:1950-51,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1952,p.18.
6 National Science Foundation,The Sixth Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ended in June 30,1956,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1957,p.66.
7 National Science Foundation,The Eighth Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ended in June 30,1958,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1959,pp.xi,3.
8 W.Lee Hansen,Claus Moser and David Brown,“The Economics of Scientific and Engineering Manpower,"The Journal of Human Resources,vol.2,no.2(Spring 1967),pp.192,200.
9 United States,Department of Justice,Immigration and Naturalization Service,Annual Report of the Immigration and Naturalization Service,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1968,p.47.
Gregory McLauchlan and Gregory Hooks,“Last of the Dinosaurs?Big Weapons,Big Science,and the American State from Hiroshima to the End of the Cold War,"The Sociological Quarterly,vol.36,no.4 (Autumn 1995),pp.751-752;Slava Gerovitch,“Mathematical Machines'of the Cold War:Soviet Computing,American Cybernetics and Ideological Disputes in the Early 1950s,"Social Studies of
1 Science,vol.31,no.2(Apr.2001),pp.277-278.
1 Kelly Moore,Disrupting Science:Social Movements,American Scientists,and the Politics of the Military,1945-1975,pp.29-30.
2 到60年代末,美国政府雇佣的物理学科学家和工程师超过3.1万人。若将其雇佣的气象学、海洋学、航空学、化学和生物学等领域的科技人才计算在内,人数更多。(David Kaiser,“Cold War Requisitions,Scientific Manpower,and the Production of American Physicists after World War II,"Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences,vol.33,no.1,2002,p.151)
3 百分比为笔者计算所得。U.S.Department of Commerce,Bureau of Census,Historical Statistics of the United States:Colonial Times to 1970,p.1116.
4 Gregory McLauchlan and Gregory Hooks,“Last of the Dinosaurs?Big Weapons,Big Science,and the American State from Hiroshima to the End of the Cold War,"pp.751-752,754.
5 National Science Foundation,The First Annual Report of the National Science Foundation:1950-51,p.18 ;Nancy Edelman Phillips,“Militarism and Grass-Roots Involvement in the Military-Industrial Complex,"The Journal of Conflict Resolution,vol.17,no.4(Dec.1973),p.626.
6 National Science Foundation,Scientific Manpower-1956:Significant Developments,View,and Statistics,NSF-57-23,p.31.
7 Joel Isaac,“The Human Sciences in Cold War America,"p.730.
8 Gregory McLauchlan and Gregory Hooks,“Last of the Dinosaurs?Big Weapons,Big Science,and the American State from Hiroshima to the End of the Cold War,"p.756.
1 百分比为笔者计算所得。参见David Kaiser,“Cold War Requisitions,Scientific Manpower,and the Production of American Physicists after World War II,"pp.132-133,135-136.
2 “军事工业复合体“是以前国内外学界常见的表述,但它仅仅涵盖了军事与工业之间的关系,没有体现出政府和高校的作用。于是,有的美国学者提出了“军事工业学术复合体“和“军事政府工业复合体“等概念。(Trevor J.Barnes and Matthew Farish,“Between Regions:Science,Militarism and American Geography from World War to Cold War,"Annals of the Association of American Geographers,vol.96,no.4(Dec.2006),p.811;Gregory McLauchlan and Gregory Hooks,“Last of the Dinosaurs?Big Weapons,Big Science,and the American State from Hiroshima to the End of the Cold War,"p.757)
3 Ann Markusen,“Dismantling the Cold War Economy,"pp.389-391.
4 David Hounshell,“The Cold War,RAND,and the Generation of Knowledge,1946-1962,"Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences,vol.27,no.2,1997,pp.238-239.
5 Barney Warf,“The Pentagon and the Service Sector,"Economic Geography,vol.69,no.2(Apr.1993),p.123;James L.Clayton,“The Impact of the Cold War on the Economies of California and Utah,1946-1965,"Pacific Historical Review,vol.36,no.4(Nov.1967),pp.449-473.
6 Vannevar Bush,Science,the Endless Frontier:A Report to the President on a Program for Post-War Scientific Research,p.x.
7 U.S.Department of Commerce,Bureau of Census,Statistical Abstract of the United States,p.543.
8 Trevor J.Barnes and Matthew Farish,“Between Regions:Science,Militarism and American Geography from World War to Cold War,"p.810.
1 Peter Kwong and Dusanka Miscevic,Chinese America:The Untold Story of America's Oldest New Community,New York:The New Press,2005,p.229.
2 U.S.Congress,“Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952:Legislative History,"in United States Code,Congressional and Administrative News,82nd Congress,2nd Session,vol.2,St.Paul,MINN.:West Publishing Co.,1952,p.1691.
3 Hans Morgenthau,In Defense of the National Interest:A Critical Examination of American Foreign Policy,New York:Alfred A.Knopf,1951;George F.Kennan,American Diplomacy,1900-1950,Chicago:Chicago University Press,1951.
4 U.S.Congress,House of Representatives,Hearings Before the President's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1952,p.2.
5 U.S.Congress,“Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952:Legislative History,"pp.1694,1697-1698.
1 Vernon M.Briggs,Jr.,Immigration Policy and the American Labor,Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1984,p.59.
2 U.S.Congress,“Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952:Legislative History,"pp.1697-1698,1705.
3 Michael C.LeMay,Guarding the Gates:Immigration and National Security,p.148.
4 关于“亚太三角区“的地理范围及各国年度限额,详见梁茂信:《美国移民政策研究》,长春:东北师范大学出版社,1996年,第164—165、272—278页。
5 Paul Spickard,Almost All Aliens:Immigration,Race,and Colonialism in American History and Identity,p.328.
6 Gerald P.Walsh,Jr.,ed.,Naturalization Laws,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1981,pp.241-242.
1 威廉·富布赖特:《帝国的代价》,简新芽、龚乃绪、李松林译,北京:世界知识出版社,1991年,第38 、40、48页。
2 Charles P.Schwartz,Jr.,“American Immigration Policy,"p.320.
3 U.S.Congressional Research Service,Congressional Research Service Report for Congress:A Brief History of U.S.Immigration Policy,Washington,D.C.:The Library of Congress,January 25,1991,p.14.http://www.ndu.edu/library/docs/91.170.doc.pdf.
4 John Higham,“American Immigration Policy in Historical Perspective,"Law and Contemporary Problems,vol.21,no.2(Spring 1956),p.234.
5 Louis L.Jaffe,“The Philosophy of Our Immigration Law,"Law and Contemporary Problems,vol.21,no.2(Spring 1956),p.365.
6 Vernon M.Briggs,Jr.,Immigration Policy and the American Labor,p.59.
7 张艳蓓、梁茂信:《外来移民在美国国家利益中的地位变迁》,《史学集刊》2013年第5期。
8 Michael Barnett,“Evolution without Progress?Humanitarianism in a World of Hurt,"International Organization,vol.63,no.4(Fall 2009),pp.623-624.
1 梁茂信:《美国移民政策研究》,第45—46页。
2 Michael Barnett,“Evolution without Progress?Humanitarianism in a World of Hurt,"p.623.
3 Paul Spickard,Almost All Aliens:Immigration,Race,and Colonialism in American History and Identity,p.324.
4 Richard H.Heindel,“The Alien Scientist and the War,"Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,vol.223(Sep.1942),pp.145-147.
5 Michel Bar-Zohar,The Hunt for German Scientists,London:Arthur Barker Limited,1967,pp.11,36-37,153.
1 John Gimbel,Science,Technology,and Reparations:Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany,Stanford,CA:Stanford University Press,1990,pp.5,17;“U.S.Policy and German Scientists:The Early Cold War,"Political Science Quarterly,vol.101,no.3,1986,pp.437-438,443-446,450-451.
2 Clarence G.Lasby,Project Paperclip:German Scientists and the Cold War,New York:Atheneum,1971,pp.5,12-13.
3 Michel Bar-Zohar,The Hunt for German Scientists,p.204.
4 Elizabeth J.Harper and Roland F.Chase,eds.,Immigration Laws of the United States,Indianapolis:The Bobbs-Merrill Company,Inc.,1975,pp.20-21.
5 Peter Kwong and Dusanka Miscevic,Chinese America:The Untold Story of America's Oldest New Community,pp.228-229.
6 “Statement of Chiristopher Emmet,Executive Vice Chairman,Aid Refugee Chinese Intellectuals,Inc.,"in U.S.Congress,House of Representatives,Hearing before the President's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization,pp.209-210.
1 Samuel P.Huntington,“The Erosion of American National Interests,"Foreign Affairs,vol.76,no.5(Sep.-Oct.1997),p.30.
2 梁茂信:《现代欧美移民与民族多元化研究》,北京:商务印书馆,2011年,第199—214页。
3 Elizabeth J.Harper and Roland F.Chase,eds.,Immigration Laws of the United States,pp.30,35.
1 U.S.Immigration and Naturalization Service,Annual Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration to the Secretary of Labor,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1932.p.35.
2 Kathleen D.McCarthy,“From Cold War to Cultural Development:The International Cultural Activities of the Ford Foundation,1950-1980,"Daedalus,vol.116,no.1(Winter 1987),p.94.
3 Cora Du Bois,Foreign Students and Higher Education in the United States,Washington,D.C.:American Council on Education,1962,p.12.
4 Liping Bu,“Educational Exchange and Cultural Diplomacy in the Cold War,"Journal of American Studies,vol.33,no.3(Dec.1999),pp.395-397.
5 Jessica C.E.Gienow-Hecht,“Shame on U.S.?Academics,Cultural Transfer,and the Cold War:A Critical Review,"Diplomatic History,vol.24,no.3(Summer 2000),p.467.
6 United States General Accounting Office,Difficulties in Determining If Nuclear Training of Foreigners Contributes to Weapons Proliferation,Washington,D.C.:U.S.General Accounting Office,April 23,1979,pp.16-17,28-29,83.
1 William W.Hoffa,A History of U.S.Study Abroad:Beginnings to 1965,Carlisle,PA:The Forum on Education Abroad,2007,pp.114-115.
2 U.S.Congress,“United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948,"in United States Code,Congressional Services,80th Congress,2nd Session,vol.1,St.Paul,MINN.:West Publishing Co.,1948,pp.4-5,6,8.
3 U.S.Congress,“United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948:Legislative History,"in United States Code,Congressional Services,80th Congress,2nd Session,vol.2,p.1023.
4 Liam Kennedy and Scott Lucas,“Enduring Freedom:Public Diplomacy and U.S.Foreign Policy,"American Quarterly,vol.57,no.2(Jun.2005),p.4.
5 Jessica C.E.Gienow-Hecht,“Shame on U.S.?Academics,Cultural Transfer,and the Cold War:A Critical Review,"p.467.
6 Liam Kennedy and Scott Lucas,“Enduring Freedom:Public Diplomacy and U.S.Foreign Policy,"p.4.
7 U.S.Congress,“United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948,"p.5.
8 Charles Susskind and Lynn Schell,Exporting Technical Education:A Survey and Case Study of Foreign Professionals with U.S.Graduate Degrees,New York:Institute of International Education,1968,p.51.
1 U.S.Senate,“Exchange Visitors-Immigration Status:Senate Report,"in United States Congress,United States Code,Congressional and Administrative News,84th Congress,2nd Session,vol.2,St.Paul,MINN.:West Publishing Co.,1956,pp.2662,2665.
2 U.S.Senate,“Exchange Visitors-Immigration Status Act of 1956,"in United States Congress,United States Code,Congressional and Administrative News,84th Congress,2nd Session,vol.1,pp.289-290.
3 U.S.Senate,“Exchange Visitors-Immigration Status:Senate Report,"p.2663.
4 U.S.Congress,Senate,Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act of 1961:Report of the Committee on Foreign Relations,United States Senate on S.1154,87th Congress,1st Session,Report no.372 ,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1961,p.20.
5 梁茂信:《1950—1980年外国留学生移民美国的趋势分析》,《世界历史》2011年第1期,第67—78页。
6 在美国政府的统计中,技术移民是指“专业技术人士、技术人员和同类劳工“。这种按照职业分类的统计中,没有包括经理和业主等受过高等教育的人。百分比为笔者计算所得。(参见U.S.Department of Commerce,Bureau of Census,Historical Statistics of the United States:Colonial Times to 1970,p.110)
1 U.S.Congress,House of Representative,Committee on Government Operations,The Brain Drain into the United States of Scientists,Engineers,and Physicians:A Staff Study for the Research and Technical Programs Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations,Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1967,p.2.
2 National Science Foundation,“Scientists and Engineers from Abroad,Fiscal Years 1962and 1963,"Reviews of Data on Science Resources,NSF65-17,vol.1,no.5(July 1965),p.7.
3 Louis L.Jaffe,“The Philosophy of Our Immigration Law,"p.365.
4 National Science Foundation,“Scientists and Engineers from Abroad,Fiscal Years 1962and 1963,"p.2.
5 U.S.Congress,House of Representative,Committee on Government Operations,The Brain Drain into the United States of Scientists,Engineers,and Physicians,pp.4-5.
6 梁茂信:《“人才循环“与“美国人才流失“说:黑白颠倒的伪命题》,《世界历史》2013年第1期。