美国公立高校积极差别待遇录取政策司法审查的新动向——以“费希尔案”为基础的考察
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摘要
美国联邦最高法院在2016年"费希尔案"中对公立高校积极差别待遇录取政策的司法审查呈现出新的动向,包括规制司法遵从边界,严格紧密缩限标准,定性阐释临界规模内涵。积极差别待遇录取政策能够促进高等教育机会实质平等,有效缓和社会矛盾冲突。同时,该类政策的制定实施需不断精细完善,确保获益群体定向准确。
The U.S.Supreme Court reviewed constitutionality of affirmative action admission policy in public higher education institutions via the Fisher case.New trends of judicial review on this issue were observed,which included regulating judicial deference boundary,raising narrowly tailored standard,and explaining critical mass concept from qualitative perspective.The article suggested that affirmative action admission policy not only promoted essential equality of higher education access,but also eased social conflicts.Meanwhile,this policy required refinement in development and implementation,which would advance accuracy of benefiting groups designed to.
The U.S.Supreme Court reviewed constitutionality of affirmative action admission policy in public higher education institutions via the Fisher case.New trends of judicial review on this issue were observed,which included regulating judicial deference boundary,raising narrowly tailored standard,and explaining critical mass concept from qualitative perspective.The article suggested that affirmative action admission policy not only promoted essential equality of higher education access,but also eased social conflicts.Meanwhile,this policy required refinement in development and implementation,which would advance accuracy of benefiting groups designed to.
引文
[1]GAERTNER M N,HART M.Considering Class:College Access and Diversity[J].Harvard Law&Policy Review,2013,(7):367-403.
[2]STULBERG L M,CHEN A S.The Origins of Raceconscious Affirmative Action in Undergraduate Admissions:A Comparative Analysis of Institutional Change in Higher Education[J].Sociology of Education,2013,87(1):36-52.
[3]ORENTLICHER D.Affirmative Action and Texas’Ten Percent Solution:Improving Diversity and Quality[J].Notre Dame Law Review,1998,74(1):181-210.
[4]FALLON JR R H.Strict Judicial Scrutiny[J].UCLA Law Review,2007,54:1267-1337.
[5]DENISON L.Opinion Analysis:A Brief Respite for Affirmative Action?[EB/OL].(2016-06-23).http://www.scotusblog.com/2016/06/opinion-analysis-a-brief-respite-for-affirmative-action/.
[6]GARNER B A.Black’s Law Dictionary(5th)[M].St.Paul,Minnesota:West Publishing Co.,1979:389.
[7]JOSHI Y.Bakke to the Future:Affirmative Action after Fisher[EB/OL].[2016-09-21].https://www.stanfordlawreview.org/online/bakke-to-the-future/.
[8]WEISSKOPF T E.Consequences of Affirmative Action in US Higher Education:A Review of Recent Empirical Studies[J].Economic and Political Weekly,2001,36(51):4719-4734.
[9]JOHNSON L B.Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:Lyndon B.Johnson,1965,Vol 2[M].Washington,D.C.:Government Printing Office,1966:635-640.
[10]ZAREFSKY D.Lydon Johnson Redefines“Equal Opportunity”:The Beginnings of Affirmative Action[J].Communication Studies,1980,31(2):85-94.
[11]E·博登海默.法理学:法律哲学与法律方法[M].邓正来,译.北京:中国政法大学出版社,1996:286-287.
[12]秦惠民.平等的受教育机会——解读一个重要的教育法原则[C]//劳凯声.中国教育法制评论(第3辑).北京:教育科学出版社,2004:1-40.
[13]PRIMUS R.Affirmative Action in College Admissions,here to Stay[EB/OL].[2016-06-23].http://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/23/opinion/affirmativeaction-in-college-admissions-here-to-stay.html.
[14]TOOBIN J.The Supreme Court after Scalia[EB/OL].[2016-10-03].http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/10/03/in-the-balance.
[15]GARCES L M.Lessons from Social Science for Kennedy’s Doctrinal Inquiry in Fisher v.University of Texas II[J].UCLA Law Review Discourse,2016,64:18-39.
[16]HARTOCOLLIS A,BIDGOOD J.Racial Discrimination Protects Ignite at Colleges across the U.S.[EB/OL].[2015-11-11].http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/12/us/racial-discrimination-protests-igniteat-colleges-across-the-us.html?_r=0.
[17]CUMMINGHAM C D,LOURY G C,SKRENTNY J D.Passing Strict Scrutiny:Using Social Science to Design Affirmative Action Programs[J].Georgetown Law Journal,2001,90:835-882.
[18]TUSHNET M.United States:Supreme Court Rules on Affirmative Action[J].International Journal of Constitutional Law,2004,2(1):158-173.
(1)Hopwood v.Texas,78F.3d932(5th Cir.1996).
(2)Grutter v.Bollinger,539U.S.306(2003).
(3)Fisher v.University of Texas,570U.S.(2013).
(4)Fisher v.University of Texas,579U.S.(2016).
(5)Regents of the University of California v.Bakke,438U.S.265(1978).
(6)Parents Involved in Community Schools v.Seattle School District No.1,551U.S.701(2007).
[2]STULBERG L M,CHEN A S.The Origins of Raceconscious Affirmative Action in Undergraduate Admissions:A Comparative Analysis of Institutional Change in Higher Education[J].Sociology of Education,2013,87(1):36-52.
[3]ORENTLICHER D.Affirmative Action and Texas’Ten Percent Solution:Improving Diversity and Quality[J].Notre Dame Law Review,1998,74(1):181-210.
[4]FALLON JR R H.Strict Judicial Scrutiny[J].UCLA Law Review,2007,54:1267-1337.
[5]DENISON L.Opinion Analysis:A Brief Respite for Affirmative Action?[EB/OL].(2016-06-23).http://www.scotusblog.com/2016/06/opinion-analysis-a-brief-respite-for-affirmative-action/.
[6]GARNER B A.Black’s Law Dictionary(5th)[M].St.Paul,Minnesota:West Publishing Co.,1979:389.
[7]JOSHI Y.Bakke to the Future:Affirmative Action after Fisher[EB/OL].[2016-09-21].https://www.stanfordlawreview.org/online/bakke-to-the-future/.
[8]WEISSKOPF T E.Consequences of Affirmative Action in US Higher Education:A Review of Recent Empirical Studies[J].Economic and Political Weekly,2001,36(51):4719-4734.
[9]JOHNSON L B.Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:Lyndon B.Johnson,1965,Vol 2[M].Washington,D.C.:Government Printing Office,1966:635-640.
[10]ZAREFSKY D.Lydon Johnson Redefines“Equal Opportunity”:The Beginnings of Affirmative Action[J].Communication Studies,1980,31(2):85-94.
[11]E·博登海默.法理学:法律哲学与法律方法[M].邓正来,译.北京:中国政法大学出版社,1996:286-287.
[12]秦惠民.平等的受教育机会——解读一个重要的教育法原则[C]//劳凯声.中国教育法制评论(第3辑).北京:教育科学出版社,2004:1-40.
[13]PRIMUS R.Affirmative Action in College Admissions,here to Stay[EB/OL].[2016-06-23].http://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/23/opinion/affirmativeaction-in-college-admissions-here-to-stay.html.
[14]TOOBIN J.The Supreme Court after Scalia[EB/OL].[2016-10-03].http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/10/03/in-the-balance.
[15]GARCES L M.Lessons from Social Science for Kennedy’s Doctrinal Inquiry in Fisher v.University of Texas II[J].UCLA Law Review Discourse,2016,64:18-39.
[16]HARTOCOLLIS A,BIDGOOD J.Racial Discrimination Protects Ignite at Colleges across the U.S.[EB/OL].[2015-11-11].http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/12/us/racial-discrimination-protests-igniteat-colleges-across-the-us.html?_r=0.
[17]CUMMINGHAM C D,LOURY G C,SKRENTNY J D.Passing Strict Scrutiny:Using Social Science to Design Affirmative Action Programs[J].Georgetown Law Journal,2001,90:835-882.
[18]TUSHNET M.United States:Supreme Court Rules on Affirmative Action[J].International Journal of Constitutional Law,2004,2(1):158-173.
(1)Hopwood v.Texas,78F.3d932(5th Cir.1996).
(2)Grutter v.Bollinger,539U.S.306(2003).
(3)Fisher v.University of Texas,570U.S.(2013).
(4)Fisher v.University of Texas,579U.S.(2016).
(5)Regents of the University of California v.Bakke,438U.S.265(1978).
(6)Parents Involved in Community Schools v.Seattle School District No.1,551U.S.701(2007).