美国公立高校积极差别待遇录取政策反思
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摘要
美国联邦最高法院在最新判决中继续维持积极差别待遇录取政策的合法地位,引出少数族裔优势群体学生从中不当受益的"奶油层"争议。仅有少数族裔之名,但无弱势状况之实,是"奶油层"的主要特征。联邦对少数族裔的正式分类不能充分体现成员内部差异,高校在追求多元化学生群体目标时过度关注少数族裔身份,政策效应累加使少数族裔优势群体学生更具入学竞争优势,是"奶油层"产生的主要原因。其造成政策积极效果难以全面惠及少数族裔弱势群体,不能充分实现源自多元化学生群体的教育利益,增加高校应对司法诉讼履行举证责任的难度等负面影响。面对司法审查压力,公立高校改进积极差别待遇录取政策时势必突出政策细化和定向准确,在分类选择的基础上细化受益标准,在全面评价的基础上复核受益资格,在常态监测的基础上定期进行调整。
The United States Supreme Court sustained constitutionality of the affirmative action admission policy inthe latest judicial decision,but "creamy layer" controversy concerning minority advantaged students with improper benefitreappeared. The key feature of "creamy layer" is that it has only the name of minority but hasn't the fact of disadvantage.Official minority category masking internal differences,achieving student body diversity by excessive focus on racialidentity,and the accumulation of policy effect making the minority advantaged students more competitive in admission,are the major reasons creating the "creamy layer". This issue makes it difficult for disadvantaged students to get fullbenefit from the positive effect of the policy,difficult for average students to get essential and real educational benefit,and difficult for public higher education institutions to fulfill the burden of proof in judicial proceedings. Facing pressurefrom judicial review,public higher education institutions should highlight policy refinement and target accuracy whilethey are reforming the affirmative action admission policy. They will refine the definition standard based on categoryselection,re-examine the qualification based on holistic review,and make regular adjustment based on normalmonitoring.
The United States Supreme Court sustained constitutionality of the affirmative action admission policy inthe latest judicial decision,but "creamy layer" controversy concerning minority advantaged students with improper benefitreappeared. The key feature of "creamy layer" is that it has only the name of minority but hasn't the fact of disadvantage.Official minority category masking internal differences,achieving student body diversity by excessive focus on racialidentity,and the accumulation of policy effect making the minority advantaged students more competitive in admission,are the major reasons creating the "creamy layer". This issue makes it difficult for disadvantaged students to get fullbenefit from the positive effect of the policy,difficult for average students to get essential and real educational benefit,and difficult for public higher education institutions to fulfill the burden of proof in judicial proceedings. Facing pressurefrom judicial review,public higher education institutions should highlight policy refinement and target accuracy whilethey are reforming the affirmative action admission policy. They will refine the definition standard based on categoryselection,re-examine the qualification based on holistic review,and make regular adjustment based on normalmonitoring.
引文
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[37]UT News.The University of Texas at Austin Proposes Inclusion of Race as A Factor in Admissions Process[EB/OL].https://news.utexas.edu/2003/11/24/nr_admission.
[38]阿兰·艾德斯,克里斯托弗·N·梅.美国宪法个人权利案例与解析[M].北京:商务印书馆,2014.254.
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[41]Sander R H.Experimenting with Class-Based Affirmative Action[J].Journal of Legal Education,1997,(4).
[42]Harris A L.The Economic and Educational State of Black Americans in the 21st Century:Should We Be Optimistic or Concerned?[J].The Review of Black Political Economy,2010,(3-4).
[43]Fallon R H.Affirmative Action Based On Economic Disadvantage[J].UCLA Law Review,1995,(6).
[45]Pager S A.Antisubordination of Whom-What India's Answer Tells Us about the Meaning of Equality in Affirmative Action[J].UC Davis Law Review,2007,(1).
[2]Brown G K,Langer A.Does Affirmative Action Work:Lessons from around the World[J].Foreign Affairs,2015,(2).
[3]Sowell T.Affirmative Action around the World:An Empirical Study[M].New Haven:Yale University Press,2004.12.
[4]Sterba J P.Completing Thomas Sowell's Study of Affirmative Action and then Drawing Different Conclusions[J].Stanford Law Review,2004,(2).
[5]Stulberg L M,Chen A S.The Origins of Race-Conscious Affirmative Action in Undergraduate Admissions:A Comparative Analysis of Institutional Change in Higher Education[J].Sociology of Education,2013,(1).
[6]Delgado R.1998 Hugo L.Black Lecture:Ten Arguments against Affirmative Action-How Valid[J].Alabama Law Review,1998,(1).
[7]安双宏.印度高等教育优待弱势群体保留权政策研究[J].比较教育研究,2016,(4).
[8]Tushnet M.United States:Supreme Court Rules on Affirmative Action[J].International Journal of Constitutional Law,2004,(1).
[9]Cunningham C D,Menon M.Race,Class,Caste...?Rethinking Affirmative Action[J].Michigan Law Review,1999,(5).
[10]Ramaiah A.Identifying Other Backward Classes[J].Economic and Political Weekly,1992,(23).
[11]Bowen W G,Bok D.The Shape of the River:Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions[M].Princeton:Princeton University Press,1998.341.
[12]Skrentny J D.Inventing Race[J].Public Interest,2002,(146).
[13][14]Sowell T.Ethnic America:A History[M].New York:Basic Books,1981.11、195.
[15]Rimer S,Arenson K W.Top Colleges Take More Blacks,but Which Ones?[EB/OL].http://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/24/us/top-colleges-take-more-blacks-but-which-ones.html?_r=0.
[16][44]La Noue G R,Sullivan J C.Deconstructing the Affirmative Action Categories[J].American Behavioral Scientist,1998,(7).
[17]Loury G C.The Hard Questions:Double Talk[J].New Republic,1997,(40).
[18]AALS,Bylaws of the Association of American Law Schools[EB/OL].http://www.aals.org/about/handbook/bylaws/.
[19]ABA.2016—2017 Standards and Rules of Procedure for Approval of Law Schools[EB/OL].http://www.americanbar.org/groups/legal_education/resources/standards.html.
[20]Laycock D.The Broader Case for Affirmative Action:Desegregation,Academic Excellence,and Future Leadership[J].Tulane Law Review,2003,(78).
[21]Dworkin R.Sovereign Virtue:The Theory and Practice of Equality[M].Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2002.404.
[22]Bowen W G,et al.Equity and Excellence in American Higher Education[M].Charlottesville:University of Virginia Press,2005.105.
[23]Carnevale A P,Rose S J.Socioeconomic Status,Race/Ethnicity,and Selective College Admissions[A].Kahlenberg R D.America's Untapped Resource:Low-Income Students in Higher Education[C].New York:Century Foundation Press,2004.101—156.
[24]Glenn C.Loury.A Dynamic Theory of Racial Income Differences[A].Wallace P A,La Mond A M.Women,Minorities,and Employment Discrimination[C].Lexington:Lexington Books,1977.153—188.
[25]Johnson L B.Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:Lyndon B.Johnson,1965,Vol 2[M].Washington,D.C.:Government Printing Office,1966.635—640.
[26]Wilson W J.The Truly Disadvantaged:The Inner City,the Underclass,and Public Policy[M].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2012.146—147.
[27]Guinier L.The Tyranny of the Meritocracy:Democratizing Higher Education in America[M].Boston:Beacon Press,2016.23.
[28]Weisskopf T E.Consequences of Affirmative Action in US Higher Education:A Review of Recent Empirical Studies[J].Economic and Political Weekly,2001,(51).
[29]Hook S,Todorovich M.The Tyranny of Reverse Discrimination[J].Change:The Magazine of Higher Learning,1975,(10).
[30]Reardon S F.The Widening Academic Achievement Gap between the Rich and the Poor:New Evidence and Possible Explanations[A].Duncan G J,Murnane R.Whither Opportunity?Rising Inequality,Schools,and Children's Life Chances[C].New York:Russell Sage Foundation,2011.91—116.
[31]Brest P,Oshige M.Affirmative Action for Whom?[J].Stanford Law Review,1995,(5).
[32]Carnoy M.Faded Dreams:The Politics and Economics of Race in America[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1996.22.
[33]Benjamin L.The Black Elite:Still Facing the Color Line in the Twenty-First Century[M].Lanham:Rowman&Littlefield,2005.133.
[34]Posner R A.The Defunis Case and the Constitutionality of Preferential Treatment of Racial Minorities[J].The Supreme Court Review,1974,(1).
[35]Gurin P,et al.Diversity and Higher Education:Theory and Impact on Educational Outcomes[J].Harvard Educational Review,2002,(3).
[36]Robinson K J.Fisher's Cautionary Tale and the Urgent Need for Equal Access to an Excellent Education[J].Harvard Law Review,2016,(130).
[37]UT News.The University of Texas at Austin Proposes Inclusion of Race as A Factor in Admissions Process[EB/OL].https://news.utexas.edu/2003/11/24/nr_admission.
[38]阿兰·艾德斯,克里斯托弗·N·梅.美国宪法个人权利案例与解析[M].北京:商务印书馆,2014.254.
[39]Kahlenberg R D.Class-Based Affirmative Action[J].California Law Review,1996,(4).
[40]Malamud D C.Class-Based Affirmative Action:Lessons and Caveats[J].Texas Law Review,1995,(7).
[41]Sander R H.Experimenting with Class-Based Affirmative Action[J].Journal of Legal Education,1997,(4).
[42]Harris A L.The Economic and Educational State of Black Americans in the 21st Century:Should We Be Optimistic or Concerned?[J].The Review of Black Political Economy,2010,(3-4).
[43]Fallon R H.Affirmative Action Based On Economic Disadvantage[J].UCLA Law Review,1995,(6).
[45]Pager S A.Antisubordination of Whom-What India's Answer Tells Us about the Meaning of Equality in Affirmative Action[J].UC Davis Law Review,2007,(1).