缅甸罗兴亚人问题的视差——历史、现状与症结分析
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摘要
有关罗兴亚人问题的研究,因对其族群的产生、概念和境遇有不同视角的见解,故形成了缅甸罗兴亚人问题的视差。~①由于视差长期存在并日渐歧异化,罗兴亚人问题的来龙去脉难以真正厘清,并在缅甸转型的背景下形成新的碰撞和冲突。罗兴亚人问题的症结除了缅甸主体大缅族主义和佛教中心主义对罗兴亚人穆斯林群体的偏见与排斥、缅甸转型与政局变动导致的罗兴亚群体日益边缘化、社交媒体发展助长的仇恨蔓延等,还在于视差影响下缅甸国内滋生的"穆斯林恐惧症"情绪以及缅甸主体民族与罗兴亚人及其国际支持者的压力对抗。罗兴亚人问题虽然在缓慢推进,但罗兴亚人孜孜以求的"生存空间"却没有得到相应改善,其前景仍令人堪忧。
Studies related to Myanmar Rohingya issues, with different perspectives towards the origin, conception and experiences of Rohingya group, have led to the parallax visions. These parallax visions have, with their long-term existing and dividing from each other, enhanced the difficulty of clarifying the causes and effects of Rohingya issues, and have witnessed more new clashes and conflicts under the background of Myanmar's transformation. The crux of the problem lies in the prejudice and exclusion of the main body of Myanmar, the great Burmese nationalism and Buddhist centralism towards the Muslim community of the Rohingya people, the increasing marginalization of the Rohingya group caused by Myanmar's transformation and political changes, and the spread of hatred fueled by the development of social media, etc. Besides, the following factors could be of more concern: the growing Islamaphobia from domestic Myanmar and the increasing antagonism between Myanmar ethnic majority and the Rohingya group together with its international supporters. Despite the crisis resolution process being pushed forward with slow pace, the "living space" that Rohingya group has been striving for has not been improved correspondingly. Rohingyas are still facing a worrisome future.
Studies related to Myanmar Rohingya issues, with different perspectives towards the origin, conception and experiences of Rohingya group, have led to the parallax visions. These parallax visions have, with their long-term existing and dividing from each other, enhanced the difficulty of clarifying the causes and effects of Rohingya issues, and have witnessed more new clashes and conflicts under the background of Myanmar's transformation. The crux of the problem lies in the prejudice and exclusion of the main body of Myanmar, the great Burmese nationalism and Buddhist centralism towards the Muslim community of the Rohingya people, the increasing marginalization of the Rohingya group caused by Myanmar's transformation and political changes, and the spread of hatred fueled by the development of social media, etc. Besides, the following factors could be of more concern: the growing Islamaphobia from domestic Myanmar and the increasing antagonism between Myanmar ethnic majority and the Rohingya group together with its international supporters. Despite the crisis resolution process being pushed forward with slow pace, the "living space" that Rohingya group has been striving for has not been improved correspondingly. Rohingyas are still facing a worrisome future.
引文
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① 视差(Parallax),原指从不同角度观察一个目标而产生的视角差异,后也被用于国际关系和对外政策领域,如布鲁斯·卡明斯在其著作《视差:美国与东亚的关系》中指出,既要从美国视角,从东亚视角,还要从双方互动视角来解读相关问题。参见Bruce Cumings,Parallax visions:making sense of American-East Asian relations,Durham,NC:Duke University Press,2002,pp.2-4。
② 缅甸官方和民间都不认可存在“罗兴亚”这个民族,并认为应该成为“宾格丽人”(有孟加拉人之意),但本文为明确问题所在及行文方便,后文均采用“罗兴亚”问题这样的说法。
(1)罗兴亚人是否有自己的语言存在争议,缅甸学者指出其语言同孟加拉国吉大港方言(Chittagonian language)大同小异,但自罗兴亚学者E.M.Siddique Basu在1999年利用罗马字母将罗兴亚人所用语言简化,并详细阐述其字母、拼读、语法、语用等规则,该语言已经得到了国际民族语学专业机构美国SIL国际的认证,予其ISO 639-3代号(罗马字母LHG),将其定位为印度-雅利安语族东部语支孟加拉-阿萨姆亚语支下属,文字定位为“哈乃斐罗兴亚文字”。参见M.Paul Lewis,Ethnologue:Languages of the World,Sixteenth edition,Dallas,Tex.:SIL International,2009。
(2)由于涉嫌种族清洗,该事件被称为1975年柬埔寨大清洗的“翻版”,参见“Achieves related to ‘Comments on the plights of Rohingya by Francois Hauter'”,the Bangladesh Times,Monday,June 5,1978。
(3)罗兴亚学者认为,军政府为了转移民众对自身的不满,故意制造了穆斯林意图使不同佛教徒女性受孕,并获得1000缅币、2000缅币、50000缅币不等的奖励(分别对应普通女性、毕业学生、军官女儿),最终引发了全国排穆运动。参见Zaw Min Htut,Human Rights Abuse and and Discrimination on Rohingyas,Japan:Burmese Rohingya Association,2013,p.72。
(4)对于此次冲突,联合国人权观察组织认为造成10多人死亡,但罗兴亚学者认为有150-180人死亡。参见Human Rights Watch Report 2001/2002/2003:Burma,https://www.hrw.org/legacy/wr2k1/asia/burma.html;Zaw Min Htut,Human Rights Abuse and Discrimination on Rohingyas,Japan:Burmese Rohingya Association,2013,p.173。
(5)缅孟边境的罗兴亚人因不受缅孟双方接纳,大量借走私船出逃,远泊泰国、印度尼西亚、印度,甚至澳大利亚,每年有一半以上因此葬身大海,而幸存者部分被沿岸国救起,部分被继续放逐,这便是一直备受争议的“船民”问题。2008年报道有1000名罗兴亚“船民”,2015年又报道有8000名。参见“Perilous Plight Burma's Rohingya Take to the Seas”,Human Rights Watch report of Burma,May 2009;《从源头解决罗兴亚难民问题》,《联合早报》(新加坡)2015年5月15日,https://www.zaobao.com.sg/forum/editorial/story20150515-480411(登陆时间2018年9月8日)。
(6)其余骚乱还包括:甘布鲁镇(2013年4月,2013年8月)、腊戌镇(2013年5月)、曼德勒市(2014年7月)等。
(7)甚至有人称之为“若开族沙文主义”,参见Jacques Leider,“Rohingya:The name,the movement,the quest for identity”,Nation Building in Myanmar,2014,pp.208-209。
(8)虽然缅甸建国以来1947年、1974年、2008年3部宪法均未确认国内有135个民族,1982年《公民法》也未确认有135个民族,2014年人口普查也承认“135个民族的界定”有争议,但缅甸在各类正式场合仍在沿用这个数字,如2017年9月28日国家安全顾问吴丹吞在联合国安理会的讲话,参见“Statement by H.E.U Thaung Tun,National Security Advisor to the Union Government of Myanmar at the meeting on the situation in Myanmar in the United Nations Security Council”,National Security Advisor U Thaung Tun,September 28,2017, the Global New Light of Myanmar,October 14,2017。此外,缅甸政府门户网站中,也可以查到这135个民族的官方名称,参见The 8 Major National Ethnic Races in Myanmar,Myanmar Government,http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/ministry/hotel/fact/race.htm。
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[121]Craig Considine,“The Rohingya Are the New Palestinians”,Foreign Policy,September 26,2017.
① 视差(Parallax),原指从不同角度观察一个目标而产生的视角差异,后也被用于国际关系和对外政策领域,如布鲁斯·卡明斯在其著作《视差:美国与东亚的关系》中指出,既要从美国视角,从东亚视角,还要从双方互动视角来解读相关问题。参见Bruce Cumings,Parallax visions:making sense of American-East Asian relations,Durham,NC:Duke University Press,2002,pp.2-4。
② 缅甸官方和民间都不认可存在“罗兴亚”这个民族,并认为应该成为“宾格丽人”(有孟加拉人之意),但本文为明确问题所在及行文方便,后文均采用“罗兴亚”问题这样的说法。
(1)罗兴亚人是否有自己的语言存在争议,缅甸学者指出其语言同孟加拉国吉大港方言(Chittagonian language)大同小异,但自罗兴亚学者E.M.Siddique Basu在1999年利用罗马字母将罗兴亚人所用语言简化,并详细阐述其字母、拼读、语法、语用等规则,该语言已经得到了国际民族语学专业机构美国SIL国际的认证,予其ISO 639-3代号(罗马字母LHG),将其定位为印度-雅利安语族东部语支孟加拉-阿萨姆亚语支下属,文字定位为“哈乃斐罗兴亚文字”。参见M.Paul Lewis,Ethnologue:Languages of the World,Sixteenth edition,Dallas,Tex.:SIL International,2009。
(2)由于涉嫌种族清洗,该事件被称为1975年柬埔寨大清洗的“翻版”,参见“Achieves related to ‘Comments on the plights of Rohingya by Francois Hauter'”,the Bangladesh Times,Monday,June 5,1978。
(3)罗兴亚学者认为,军政府为了转移民众对自身的不满,故意制造了穆斯林意图使不同佛教徒女性受孕,并获得1000缅币、2000缅币、50000缅币不等的奖励(分别对应普通女性、毕业学生、军官女儿),最终引发了全国排穆运动。参见Zaw Min Htut,Human Rights Abuse and and Discrimination on Rohingyas,Japan:Burmese Rohingya Association,2013,p.72。
(4)对于此次冲突,联合国人权观察组织认为造成10多人死亡,但罗兴亚学者认为有150-180人死亡。参见Human Rights Watch Report 2001/2002/2003:Burma,https://www.hrw.org/legacy/wr2k1/asia/burma.html;Zaw Min Htut,Human Rights Abuse and Discrimination on Rohingyas,Japan:Burmese Rohingya Association,2013,p.173。
(5)缅孟边境的罗兴亚人因不受缅孟双方接纳,大量借走私船出逃,远泊泰国、印度尼西亚、印度,甚至澳大利亚,每年有一半以上因此葬身大海,而幸存者部分被沿岸国救起,部分被继续放逐,这便是一直备受争议的“船民”问题。2008年报道有1000名罗兴亚“船民”,2015年又报道有8000名。参见“Perilous Plight Burma's Rohingya Take to the Seas”,Human Rights Watch report of Burma,May 2009;《从源头解决罗兴亚难民问题》,《联合早报》(新加坡)2015年5月15日,https://www.zaobao.com.sg/forum/editorial/story20150515-480411(登陆时间2018年9月8日)。
(6)其余骚乱还包括:甘布鲁镇(2013年4月,2013年8月)、腊戌镇(2013年5月)、曼德勒市(2014年7月)等。
(7)甚至有人称之为“若开族沙文主义”,参见Jacques Leider,“Rohingya:The name,the movement,the quest for identity”,Nation Building in Myanmar,2014,pp.208-209。
(8)虽然缅甸建国以来1947年、1974年、2008年3部宪法均未确认国内有135个民族,1982年《公民法》也未确认有135个民族,2014年人口普查也承认“135个民族的界定”有争议,但缅甸在各类正式场合仍在沿用这个数字,如2017年9月28日国家安全顾问吴丹吞在联合国安理会的讲话,参见“Statement by H.E.U Thaung Tun,National Security Advisor to the Union Government of Myanmar at the meeting on the situation in Myanmar in the United Nations Security Council”,National Security Advisor U Thaung Tun,September 28,2017, the Global New Light of Myanmar,October 14,2017。此外,缅甸政府门户网站中,也可以查到这135个民族的官方名称,参见The 8 Major National Ethnic Races in Myanmar,Myanmar Government,http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/ministry/hotel/fact/race.htm。