国际语言复兴研究的理论和实践
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摘要
本文探讨了语言复兴作为研究和实践领域的起源和发展。基于最近出版的《劳特利奇语言复兴手册》,本文将语言复兴定义为"为逐渐或已经不被使用的语言提供新的生命和活力的过程",认为语言复兴研究的发展与20世纪80年代后期开始逐渐兴起的濒危语言研究相呼应。这显示了语言复兴如何在21世纪初作为一个独特的研究领域出现,并且有逐渐往跨学科发展的趋势。本文提供语言复兴的案例研究,以展示在不同的社会、政治和文化背景下研究和实践交织的方式。最后简要分析了该领域发展的两个重要趋势:语言复兴教学课程的发展以及语言复兴民族志研究的出现。
This article examines the origin and growth of language revitalization as a field of both research and practice. Based on the recently published Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization, the article defines language revitalization as "giving new life and vigor to a language that has been decreasing in use, or which has even ceased being used altogether." This article argues that language revitalization has grown in tandem with the study of endangered languages, beginning in the late 1980s. It shows how language revitalization emerged as a distinct field of research in the early twenty-first century, and has become increasingly interdisciplinary since this time. Case studies of language revitalization are offered to demonstrate the ways in which research and practice intertwine in different social, political, and cultural contexts. The article concludes by briefly examining two significant trends in the development of the field: the growth of teaching programs in language revitalization, and the emergence of ethnographic studies of language revitalization.
This article examines the origin and growth of language revitalization as a field of both research and practice. Based on the recently published Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization, the article defines language revitalization as "giving new life and vigor to a language that has been decreasing in use, or which has even ceased being used altogether." This article argues that language revitalization has grown in tandem with the study of endangered languages, beginning in the late 1980s. It shows how language revitalization emerged as a distinct field of research in the early twenty-first century, and has become increasingly interdisciplinary since this time. Case studies of language revitalization are offered to demonstrate the ways in which research and practice intertwine in different social, political, and cultural contexts. The article concludes by briefly examining two significant trends in the development of the field: the growth of teaching programs in language revitalization, and the emergence of ethnographic studies of language revitalization.
引文
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Aikio-Puoskari,U.2018.Revitalization of Sámi languages in three Nordic countries:Finland,Norway and Sweden.In Leanne Hinton,Leena Huss&Gerald Roche(eds.),Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,355-363.London:Routledge.
Amery,R.2016.Warraparna Kaurna!Reclaiming an Australian Language.Adelaide:University of Adelaide Press.
Anderson,G.D.S.2011.Language hotspots:What(applied)linguistics and education should do about language endangerment in the twenty-first century.Language and Education 25(4),273-289.
Austin,P.K.&J.Sallabank(eds.).2011.The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Axelsen,J.B.&S.Manrubia.2014.River density and landscape roughness are universal determinants of linguistic diversity.Proceedings of the Royal Society B 281(1784).http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.3029,accessed 16 June 2018.
Baldwin,D.,L.Hinton&G.Pérez-Báez.2018.The breath of life workshops and institutes.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.).Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,188-196.London:Routledge.
Berk,C.2017.Palawa Kani and the value of language in aboriginal Tasmania.Oceania 87(1),2-20.
Brenzinger,M.,B.Heine&G.Sommer.1991.Language death in Africa.Diogenes 39(153),19-44.
Campbell,L.&A.Belew.2018.Cataloguing the World’s Endangered Languages.London:Routledge.
Cocq,C.2018.Tjutju.In G.Roche,H.Maruyama&?sa Virdi Kroik(eds.).2018.Indigenous Efflorescence:Beyond Revitalization in Sapmi and Ainu Mosir,95-98.Canberra:Australian National University Press.http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n4626/pdf/ch08.pdf,accessed 21 March 2019.
Coronel-Molina,S.2015.Language Ideology,Policy and Planning in Peru.Bristol/Buffalo/Toronto:Multilingual Matters.
Costa,J.2016.Revitalizing Language in Provence:A Critical Approach.London:Wiley-Blackwell.
Davis,J.L.2018.Talking Indian:Identity and Language Revitalization in the Chickasaw Renaissance.Tuscon:University of Arizona Press.
Debenport,E.2015.Fixing the Books:Secrecy,Literacy,and Perfectibility in Indigenous New Mexico.Santa Fe:SAR Press.
Fishman,J.1966.Language Loyalty in the United States:The Maintenance and Perpetuation of Non-English Mother Tongues by American Ethnic and Religious Groups.Hague:Mouton.
Fishman,J.1991.Reversing Language Shift:Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages(Multilingual Matters 76).Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Gal,S.1979.Language Shift:Social Determinants of Linguistic Change in Bilingual Austria.New York,NY:Academic Press.
G?rdebo,J.,May-Britt?hman&Hiroshi Maruyama(eds.).2014.Re:Mindings:Co-constituting Indigenous,Academic and Artistic Knowledges.Uppsala:The Hugo Valentin Centre.
Gessner,S.,M.Florey,Inée Yang Slaughter,et al.2018.The role of organizations in language revitalization.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.).Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,51-60.London:Routledge.
Gorenflo,L.J.,S.Romaine,R.Mittermeier,et al.2012.Co-occurrence of linguistic and biological diversity in biodiversity hotspots and high biodiversity wilderness areas.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(21),8032-8037,https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1117511109,accessed 16 June 2018.
Granadillo,T.&H.A.Orcutt-Gachiri.2011.Introduction.In T.Granadillo&H.A.Orcutt-Gachiri(eds.),Ethnographic Contributions to the Study of Endangered Languages 1-12.Arizona:University of Arizona Press.
Grenoble,L.A.&L.J.Whaley(eds.).2005.Endangered Languages:Current Issues and Future Prospects.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Hale,K.,M.Krauss,L.J.Watahomigie,et al.1992.Endangered languages.Language 68(1),1-42.https://doi.org/10.2307/416368,accessed 16 June 2018.
Haugen,E.1952.The Norwegian Language in America:A Study in Bilingual Behavior.Bloomington:Indiana University Press.
Hinton,Huss&Roche(eds.).2018.Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization.London:Routledge.
Hinton,L.(with M.Vera,Nancy Steele and the Advocates for Indigenous California Language Survival).2002.How to Keep Your Language Alive:A Common-sense Approach to One-one-One Language Learning.Berkeley,CA:Heydey Books.
Hinton,L.2013.Bringing our Languages Home:Language Revitalization for Families.Berkeley:Heydey Books.
Hinton,L.&K.Hale(eds.).2001.The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice.San Diego,CA:Academic Press.
Hobson,J.2018.Language revival in Australia.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.).Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,320-329.London:Routledge.
Hobson,J.&John Robert.2010.Re-awakening Languages:Theory and Practice in the Revitalisation of Australia’s Indigenous Languages.Sydney:Sydney University Press.
Huss,L.&Sigrid St?nberg.2018.The yoke and the candy bowl:Beliefs and emotions in south Sami language revitalization.In G.Roche,Hiroshi Maruyama&?sa Virdi Kroik(eds.),Indigenous Efflorescence:Beyond Revitalization in Sapmi and Ainu Mosir,129-150.Canberra:Australian National University Press.http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n4626/pdf/ch14.pdf,accessed 21 March 2019.
Jacob,M.M.2013.Yakama Rising:Indigenous Cultural Revitalization,Activism,and Healing.Tucson:University of Arizona Press.
Jones,M.C.&S.Ogilvie(eds.).2013.Keeping Languages Alive:Documentation,Pedagogy and Revitalization.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Juuso,J.2015.I am Taking My Language Back[translation into English,of Jagtar Tillbaka Mitt Spr?k-Mov Gi?elem B??stede Vaaltam].Brentwood Bay,BC:First Peoples’Cultural Council.
Kibrik,A.1991.The problem of endangered languages in the USSR.Diogenes 39(153),67-83.https://doi.org/10.1177/039219219103915305,accessed 16 June 2018.
King,K.A.2001.Language Revitalization Processes and Prospects:Quichua in the Ecuadorian Andes.Bristol/Buffalo/Toronto:Multilingual Matters.
King,K.A.,L.Fogle&A.Logan-Terry.2008.Family language policy.Language and Linguistics Compass 2(5),907-922.
Kulick,D.1992.Language Shift and Cultural Reproduction:Socialization,Self and Syncretism in a Papua New Guinea Village.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Leonard,W.Y.2012.Framing language reclamation programmes for everybody’s empowerment.Gender and Language 6(2),339-367.
Liljegren,H.2018.Supporting and sustaining language vitality in northern Pakistan.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.),Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,427-437.London:Routledge.
Loh,J.&D.Harmon.2005.A global index of biocultural diversity.Ecological Indicators 5(3),231-241.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2005.02.005,accessed 16 June 2018.
Maffi,L.2005.Linguistic,cultural,and biological diversity.Annual Review of Anthropology 34,599-617.https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120437,accessed 16 June 2018.
May,S.&R.Hill.2018.Language revitalization in Aotearoa/New Zealand.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.),Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,309-319.London:Routledge.
Meek,B.2011.We are Our Language:An Ethnography of Language Revitalization in a Northern Athabaskan Community.Tucson:University of Arizona Press.
Nettle,D.2009.Ecological influences on human behavioural diversity:A review of recent findings.Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24(11),618-624.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.013,accessed 16 June 2018.
Nevins,M.E.2013.Lessons from Fort Apache:Beyond Language Endangerment and Maintenance.London:Wiley-Blackwell.
Norberg,M.1996.Sprachwechselprozess in der Niederlausitz:Soziolinguistische Fallstudie der deutsch-sorbischen Gemeinde Drachhausen/Hochoza[Language Shift Process in Niederlausitz:A Sociolinguistic Case Study on the German-Sorbian Community Drachhausen/Hochoza].Ph.D.Thesis,Department of Slavic Languages,Uppsala University,Uppsala.
Olthuis,M.,S.Kivel?&T.Skutnabb-Kangas.2013.Revitalising Indigenous Languages:How to Recreate a Lost Generation.Bristol/Buffalo/Toronto:Multilingual Matters Ltd.
O’Reagan,H.2018.Kotahi Mano Kāika,Kotahi Mano Wawata-A thousand homes,a thousand dreams:Permission to dream again.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.),Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,107-114.London:Routledge.
O’Rourke,B.2018.New speakers of endangered languages.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.),Routledge Handbook of Endangered Languages.London:Routledge.
Outakoski,H.2018.In search of virtual learning spaces for Sami languages.In G.Roche,Hiroshi Maruyama&?sa Virdi Kroik(eds.),Indigenous Efflorescence:Beyond Revitalization in Sapmi and Ainu Mosir,89-94.Canberra:Australian National University Press,accessed 21 March 2019.
Perley,B.2011.Defying Maliseet Language Death:Emergent Vitalities of Language,Culture and Identity in Eastern Canada.Reno:University of Nebraska Press.
Rehg,K.&L.Campbell.2018.Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Robins,R.&E.Uhlenbeck.1991.Endangered Languages.New York:Berg Publishers.
Roche,G.,Hiroshi Maruyama&?sa Virdi Kroik.2018.Indigenous Efflorescence:Beyond Revitalization in Sapmi and Ainu Mosir.Canberra:Australian National University Press.
Sedholm,O.2018.Viessuoje Mujttuo:Saving an indigenous language through new technology.In G.Roche,Hiroshi Maruyama&?sa Virdi Kroik(eds.),Indigenous Efflorescence:Beyond Revitalization in Sapmi and Ainu Mosir,85-88.Canberra:Australian National University Press.http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n4626/pdf/ch07.pdf,accessed 21March 2019.
Simons,G.F.&C.D.Fennig(eds.).2018.Ethnologue:Languages of the World,twenty-first edition.Dallas,Texas:SIL International.Online:http://www.ethnologue.com.
Thomason,S.2015.Endangered Languages:An Introduction.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
UNESCO.2003.Language vitality and endangerment.Document submitted to the International expert meeting on UNESCOprogramme safeguarding of endangered language.Paris,10-12 March,http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/Language_vitality_and_endangerment_EN.pdf,accessed 16 June 2018.
UNESCO.2011.UNESCO’s language vitality and endangerment methodological guideline:Review of application and feedback since 2003.Background Paper.http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/unesco_language_vitaly_and_endangerment_methodological_guideline.pdf,accessed 16 June 2018.
Urla,J.2012.Reclaiming Basque:Language,Nation,and Cultural Activism.Reno:University of Nevada Press.
Weinreich,U.1953.Languages in Contact:Findings and Problems.The Hague:Mouton.
Winitana,C.2011.My Language,My Inspiration:The Struggle Continues.Wellington:Huia Publishers.
Wurm,S.1991.Language death and disappearance:Causes and circumstances.Diogenes 39(153),1-18.https://doi.org/10.1177/039219219103915302,accessed 16 June 2018.
Wurm,S.(ed.).1996.Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger of Disappearing.Paris/Canberra:UNESCO Publishing/Pacific Linguistics.
Wyman,L.2012.Youth Culture,Language Endangerment and Linguistic Survivance.Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Xu Shixuan.2003.Language endangerment.In Li Yuming&Li Wei(eds.),The Language Situation in China Vol.1,261-270.Berlin:De Gruyter.
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(1)Zuckerman关于这个话题的新研究方法可参考:https://www.edx.org/course/language-revival-securing-future-adelaidex-lang101x-1。
(1)http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/books.html。
(2)http://www.elpublishing.org/publications。
(3)http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/ldc/。
(1)https://lx.berkeley.edu/academics/designated-emphasis-indigenous-language-revitalization。
(2)https://sydney.edu.au/courses/courses/pc/master-of-indigenous-languages-education.html。
(3)https://fnel.arts.ubc.ca/。
Aikio-Puoskari,U.2018.Revitalization of Sámi languages in three Nordic countries:Finland,Norway and Sweden.In Leanne Hinton,Leena Huss&Gerald Roche(eds.),Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,355-363.London:Routledge.
Amery,R.2016.Warraparna Kaurna!Reclaiming an Australian Language.Adelaide:University of Adelaide Press.
Anderson,G.D.S.2011.Language hotspots:What(applied)linguistics and education should do about language endangerment in the twenty-first century.Language and Education 25(4),273-289.
Austin,P.K.&J.Sallabank(eds.).2011.The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Axelsen,J.B.&S.Manrubia.2014.River density and landscape roughness are universal determinants of linguistic diversity.Proceedings of the Royal Society B 281(1784).http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.3029,accessed 16 June 2018.
Baldwin,D.,L.Hinton&G.Pérez-Báez.2018.The breath of life workshops and institutes.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.).Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,188-196.London:Routledge.
Berk,C.2017.Palawa Kani and the value of language in aboriginal Tasmania.Oceania 87(1),2-20.
Brenzinger,M.,B.Heine&G.Sommer.1991.Language death in Africa.Diogenes 39(153),19-44.
Campbell,L.&A.Belew.2018.Cataloguing the World’s Endangered Languages.London:Routledge.
Cocq,C.2018.Tjutju.In G.Roche,H.Maruyama&?sa Virdi Kroik(eds.).2018.Indigenous Efflorescence:Beyond Revitalization in Sapmi and Ainu Mosir,95-98.Canberra:Australian National University Press.http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n4626/pdf/ch08.pdf,accessed 21 March 2019.
Coronel-Molina,S.2015.Language Ideology,Policy and Planning in Peru.Bristol/Buffalo/Toronto:Multilingual Matters.
Costa,J.2016.Revitalizing Language in Provence:A Critical Approach.London:Wiley-Blackwell.
Davis,J.L.2018.Talking Indian:Identity and Language Revitalization in the Chickasaw Renaissance.Tuscon:University of Arizona Press.
Debenport,E.2015.Fixing the Books:Secrecy,Literacy,and Perfectibility in Indigenous New Mexico.Santa Fe:SAR Press.
Fishman,J.1966.Language Loyalty in the United States:The Maintenance and Perpetuation of Non-English Mother Tongues by American Ethnic and Religious Groups.Hague:Mouton.
Fishman,J.1991.Reversing Language Shift:Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages(Multilingual Matters 76).Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Gal,S.1979.Language Shift:Social Determinants of Linguistic Change in Bilingual Austria.New York,NY:Academic Press.
G?rdebo,J.,May-Britt?hman&Hiroshi Maruyama(eds.).2014.Re:Mindings:Co-constituting Indigenous,Academic and Artistic Knowledges.Uppsala:The Hugo Valentin Centre.
Gessner,S.,M.Florey,Inée Yang Slaughter,et al.2018.The role of organizations in language revitalization.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.).Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,51-60.London:Routledge.
Gorenflo,L.J.,S.Romaine,R.Mittermeier,et al.2012.Co-occurrence of linguistic and biological diversity in biodiversity hotspots and high biodiversity wilderness areas.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(21),8032-8037,https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1117511109,accessed 16 June 2018.
Granadillo,T.&H.A.Orcutt-Gachiri.2011.Introduction.In T.Granadillo&H.A.Orcutt-Gachiri(eds.),Ethnographic Contributions to the Study of Endangered Languages 1-12.Arizona:University of Arizona Press.
Grenoble,L.A.&L.J.Whaley(eds.).2005.Endangered Languages:Current Issues and Future Prospects.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Hale,K.,M.Krauss,L.J.Watahomigie,et al.1992.Endangered languages.Language 68(1),1-42.https://doi.org/10.2307/416368,accessed 16 June 2018.
Haugen,E.1952.The Norwegian Language in America:A Study in Bilingual Behavior.Bloomington:Indiana University Press.
Hinton,Huss&Roche(eds.).2018.Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization.London:Routledge.
Hinton,L.(with M.Vera,Nancy Steele and the Advocates for Indigenous California Language Survival).2002.How to Keep Your Language Alive:A Common-sense Approach to One-one-One Language Learning.Berkeley,CA:Heydey Books.
Hinton,L.2013.Bringing our Languages Home:Language Revitalization for Families.Berkeley:Heydey Books.
Hinton,L.&K.Hale(eds.).2001.The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice.San Diego,CA:Academic Press.
Hobson,J.2018.Language revival in Australia.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.).Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,320-329.London:Routledge.
Hobson,J.&John Robert.2010.Re-awakening Languages:Theory and Practice in the Revitalisation of Australia’s Indigenous Languages.Sydney:Sydney University Press.
Huss,L.&Sigrid St?nberg.2018.The yoke and the candy bowl:Beliefs and emotions in south Sami language revitalization.In G.Roche,Hiroshi Maruyama&?sa Virdi Kroik(eds.),Indigenous Efflorescence:Beyond Revitalization in Sapmi and Ainu Mosir,129-150.Canberra:Australian National University Press.http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n4626/pdf/ch14.pdf,accessed 21 March 2019.
Jacob,M.M.2013.Yakama Rising:Indigenous Cultural Revitalization,Activism,and Healing.Tucson:University of Arizona Press.
Jones,M.C.&S.Ogilvie(eds.).2013.Keeping Languages Alive:Documentation,Pedagogy and Revitalization.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Juuso,J.2015.I am Taking My Language Back[translation into English,of Jagtar Tillbaka Mitt Spr?k-Mov Gi?elem B??stede Vaaltam].Brentwood Bay,BC:First Peoples’Cultural Council.
Kibrik,A.1991.The problem of endangered languages in the USSR.Diogenes 39(153),67-83.https://doi.org/10.1177/039219219103915305,accessed 16 June 2018.
King,K.A.2001.Language Revitalization Processes and Prospects:Quichua in the Ecuadorian Andes.Bristol/Buffalo/Toronto:Multilingual Matters.
King,K.A.,L.Fogle&A.Logan-Terry.2008.Family language policy.Language and Linguistics Compass 2(5),907-922.
Kulick,D.1992.Language Shift and Cultural Reproduction:Socialization,Self and Syncretism in a Papua New Guinea Village.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Leonard,W.Y.2012.Framing language reclamation programmes for everybody’s empowerment.Gender and Language 6(2),339-367.
Liljegren,H.2018.Supporting and sustaining language vitality in northern Pakistan.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.),Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,427-437.London:Routledge.
Loh,J.&D.Harmon.2005.A global index of biocultural diversity.Ecological Indicators 5(3),231-241.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2005.02.005,accessed 16 June 2018.
Maffi,L.2005.Linguistic,cultural,and biological diversity.Annual Review of Anthropology 34,599-617.https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120437,accessed 16 June 2018.
May,S.&R.Hill.2018.Language revitalization in Aotearoa/New Zealand.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.),Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,309-319.London:Routledge.
Meek,B.2011.We are Our Language:An Ethnography of Language Revitalization in a Northern Athabaskan Community.Tucson:University of Arizona Press.
Nettle,D.2009.Ecological influences on human behavioural diversity:A review of recent findings.Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24(11),618-624.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.013,accessed 16 June 2018.
Nevins,M.E.2013.Lessons from Fort Apache:Beyond Language Endangerment and Maintenance.London:Wiley-Blackwell.
Norberg,M.1996.Sprachwechselprozess in der Niederlausitz:Soziolinguistische Fallstudie der deutsch-sorbischen Gemeinde Drachhausen/Hochoza[Language Shift Process in Niederlausitz:A Sociolinguistic Case Study on the German-Sorbian Community Drachhausen/Hochoza].Ph.D.Thesis,Department of Slavic Languages,Uppsala University,Uppsala.
Olthuis,M.,S.Kivel?&T.Skutnabb-Kangas.2013.Revitalising Indigenous Languages:How to Recreate a Lost Generation.Bristol/Buffalo/Toronto:Multilingual Matters Ltd.
O’Reagan,H.2018.Kotahi Mano Kāika,Kotahi Mano Wawata-A thousand homes,a thousand dreams:Permission to dream again.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.),Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization,107-114.London:Routledge.
O’Rourke,B.2018.New speakers of endangered languages.In L.Hinton,L.Huss&G.Roche(eds.),Routledge Handbook of Endangered Languages.London:Routledge.
Outakoski,H.2018.In search of virtual learning spaces for Sami languages.In G.Roche,Hiroshi Maruyama&?sa Virdi Kroik(eds.),Indigenous Efflorescence:Beyond Revitalization in Sapmi and Ainu Mosir,89-94.Canberra:Australian National University Press,accessed 21 March 2019.
Perley,B.2011.Defying Maliseet Language Death:Emergent Vitalities of Language,Culture and Identity in Eastern Canada.Reno:University of Nebraska Press.
Rehg,K.&L.Campbell.2018.Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Robins,R.&E.Uhlenbeck.1991.Endangered Languages.New York:Berg Publishers.
Roche,G.,Hiroshi Maruyama&?sa Virdi Kroik.2018.Indigenous Efflorescence:Beyond Revitalization in Sapmi and Ainu Mosir.Canberra:Australian National University Press.
Sedholm,O.2018.Viessuoje Mujttuo:Saving an indigenous language through new technology.In G.Roche,Hiroshi Maruyama&?sa Virdi Kroik(eds.),Indigenous Efflorescence:Beyond Revitalization in Sapmi and Ainu Mosir,85-88.Canberra:Australian National University Press.http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n4626/pdf/ch07.pdf,accessed 21March 2019.
Simons,G.F.&C.D.Fennig(eds.).2018.Ethnologue:Languages of the World,twenty-first edition.Dallas,Texas:SIL International.Online:http://www.ethnologue.com.
Thomason,S.2015.Endangered Languages:An Introduction.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
UNESCO.2003.Language vitality and endangerment.Document submitted to the International expert meeting on UNESCOprogramme safeguarding of endangered language.Paris,10-12 March,http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/Language_vitality_and_endangerment_EN.pdf,accessed 16 June 2018.
UNESCO.2011.UNESCO’s language vitality and endangerment methodological guideline:Review of application and feedback since 2003.Background Paper.http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/unesco_language_vitaly_and_endangerment_methodological_guideline.pdf,accessed 16 June 2018.
Urla,J.2012.Reclaiming Basque:Language,Nation,and Cultural Activism.Reno:University of Nevada Press.
Weinreich,U.1953.Languages in Contact:Findings and Problems.The Hague:Mouton.
Winitana,C.2011.My Language,My Inspiration:The Struggle Continues.Wellington:Huia Publishers.
Wurm,S.1991.Language death and disappearance:Causes and circumstances.Diogenes 39(153),1-18.https://doi.org/10.1177/039219219103915302,accessed 16 June 2018.
Wurm,S.(ed.).1996.Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger of Disappearing.Paris/Canberra:UNESCO Publishing/Pacific Linguistics.
Wyman,L.2012.Youth Culture,Language Endangerment and Linguistic Survivance.Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
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(1)Zuckerman关于这个话题的新研究方法可参考:https://www.edx.org/course/language-revival-securing-future-adelaidex-lang101x-1。
(1)http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/books.html。
(2)http://www.elpublishing.org/publications。
(3)http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/ldc/。
(1)https://lx.berkeley.edu/academics/designated-emphasis-indigenous-language-revitalization。
(2)https://sydney.edu.au/courses/courses/pc/master-of-indigenous-languages-education.html。
(3)https://fnel.arts.ubc.ca/。