借词音系学与汉语借词研究
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摘要
本文旨在评介当代借词音系学的各种理论模型,以及汉语(方言)和少数民族语言相关现象对于借词音系学乃至理论音系学的贡献与挑战。首先,我们所列举的借词音系现象强有力地支持听觉感知的显著性在音系理论中的重要地位,因不具有区辨性、冗赘的特征也会参与借词改造的音系运算。更重要的是,我们首次在这些语言的借词现象中观察到与听觉感知息息相关的"增强效应"的作用。同时,汉语与非汉语的某些借词现象也对现有的音系理论提出挑战,诸如"调盲"以及"不造新音节"等在其他语言里比较罕见的特殊现象。总之,本文的讨论说明,经由细致的整理与分析,一般刻板印象中"简单、无复杂音系变化"的东亚语言其实深具研究价值,也能对当代音系理论做出实质的贡献及有力的质疑。
The goals of this paper are two-fold.First,this paper introduces competing approaches to loanword phonology.Second,it provides a survey of instances of segmental and suprasegmental adaptation in Sinitic and minority languages in China and subsequently discusses the theoretical consequences thereof.Loanword adaptation shows that non-distinctive,redundant features must be involved in linguistic computation.More remarkably,enhancement effects are attested in the loanword adaptation patterns of the languages under discussion,lending further support to the role of perceptual saliency in phonology.On the odier hand,some unique phenomena,such as "tone deaf' and "lexical conservatism" only found in these languages,pose non-trivial challenges to existing theories of loanword adaptation.In sum,it is shown in this paper that East Asian languages,albeit(morpho-)phonologically impoverished,do present a rich empirical ground for examining many important questions in phonological theory.
The goals of this paper are two-fold.First,this paper introduces competing approaches to loanword phonology.Second,it provides a survey of instances of segmental and suprasegmental adaptation in Sinitic and minority languages in China and subsequently discusses the theoretical consequences thereof.Loanword adaptation shows that non-distinctive,redundant features must be involved in linguistic computation.More remarkably,enhancement effects are attested in the loanword adaptation patterns of the languages under discussion,lending further support to the role of perceptual saliency in phonology.On the odier hand,some unique phenomena,such as "tone deaf' and "lexical conservatism" only found in these languages,pose non-trivial challenges to existing theories of loanword adaptation.In sum,it is shown in this paper that East Asian languages,albeit(morpho-)phonologically impoverished,do present a rich empirical ground for examining many important questions in phonological theory.
引文
Bauer,R.1985.The expanding syllabary of Hong Kong Cantonese.Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 14,99-113.
Bauer,R.and P.Benedict.1997.Modern Cantonese Phonology.Berlin:Mouton De Gruyter.
Boersma,P.and S.Hamann.2009.Loanword adaptation as first-language phonological perception.In A.Calabrese and W.L.Wetzels,eds.,Loan Phonology.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.Pp.11-58.
Broselow,E.2009.Stress adaptation in loanword phonology:Perception and learnability.In P.Boersma and S.Hamann,eds.,Phonology in Perception.Berlin:Mouton de Gruyter.Pp.191-234.
Broselow,E.,S.Chen(陈素宜),and C.Wang(王启琳).1998.The emergence of the unmarked.Studies in Second Language Acquisition 20,251-78.
Davis,S,N.Tsujimura,and J.-Y.Tu(杜容玥).2012.Toward a taxonomy of loanword prosody.Catalan Journal of Linguistics 11,13-39.
de Lacy,P.2002.The interaction of tone and stress in Optimality Theory.Phonology 19,1-32.
Dong,X.2012.What borrowing buys us:A study of Chinese loanword phonology.Ph.D.diss.,Universiteit Utrecht,Utrecht.
Duanmu,S.(端木三).2007[2000].The Phonology of Standard Chinese.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Hsieh,F.-F.(谢丰帆).2006.High infidelity:The non-mapping of Japanese accent onto Taiwanese tone.In F.-F.Hsieh and M.Kenstowicz,eds.,MIT Working Papers in Linguistics52:Studies in Loanword Phonology.Pp.1-27.
——.2012.Low vowel raising in Sinitic languages:Assimilation,reduction,or both?Language and Linguistics 13,4:583-623.
Hsieh,F.-F.and M.Kenstowicz.2008.Phonetic knowledge in in tonal adaptation:Mandarin and English loanwords in Lhasa Tibetan.Journal of East Asian Linguistics 17,4:279-97.
Hsieh,F.-F.,M.Kenstowicz,and X.Mou.2009.Mandarin adaptations of coda nasals in English loanwords.In A.Calabrese and W.L.Wetzels,eds.,Loan Phonology.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.Pp.131-54.
Hyman,L.1970.The role of borrowings in the justification of phonological grammars.Studies in African Linguistics 1,1-48.
Ito,C.and M.Kenstowicz.2009a.Mandarin loanwords in Yanbian Korean I;Laryngeal features.Onin Kenkyuu 12,61-72.
——.2009b.Mandarin Loanwords in Yanbian Korean II;Tones.Language Research 45,1;85-109.
Kang,Y.2010.Tutorial overview;Suprasegmental adaptation in loanwords.Lingua 120,2295-310.
——.2011.Loanword phonology.In M.van Oostendorp,C.Ewen,E.Hume and K.Rice,eds.,The Blackwell Companion to Phonology.Hoboken,NJ;Wiley-Blackwell.Pp.2258-82.
Kenstowicz,M.2007.Salience and similarity in loanword adaptation;A case study from Fijian.Language Sciences 29,316-40.
——.2012.Cantonese loanwords;Conflicting faithfulness in VC rime constraints.Catalan Journal of Linguistics 11,65-96.
Kingston,J.2011.Tonogenesis.In M.van Oostendorp,C.J.Ewen,E.Hume,and K.Rice,eds.,The Blackwell Companion to Phonology.Hoboken,NJ;Wiley-Blackwell.Pp.2304-33.
Kiu,K.L.(乔洁玲).1977.Tonal rules for English loan words in Cantonese.Journal of the International Phonetic Association 7,17-22.
LaCharitfi,D.and C.Paradis.2005.Category preservation and proximity versus phonetic approximation in loanword adaptation.Linguistic Inquiry 36,223-58.
Lin,T.-H.J.(林宗宏).1998.From transliteration to grammar;A study of adaptation of foreign names into Chinese and Taiwanese Mandarin.Phonology Qualifying Paper submitted to Department of Linguistics,University of California,Irvine,CA.
Lin,Y.-H.(林燕慧).2008.Variable vowel adaptation in Standard Mandarin loanwords.Journal of East Asian Linguistics 17,363-80.
Luke,K.-K.(陆镜光)and C.-M.Lau.(刘择明).2008.On loanword truncation in Cantonese.Journal of East Asian linguistics 17,4:347-62.
Miao,R.(苗瑞琴).2005.Loanword adaptat ion in Mandarin Chinese;Perceptual,phonological and sociolinguistic factors.Ph.D.diss.,State University of New York,Stony Brook,NY.
Paradis,C.and D.LaCharit6.1997.Preservation and minimality in loanword adaptation.Journal of Linguistics 33,379-430.
Peperkamp,S.,I.Vendelin,and K.Nakamura.2008.On the perceptual origin of loanword adaptations;Experimental evidence from Japanese.Phonology 25,1;129-64.
Samuels,B.D.2009.The structure of phonological theory.Ph.D.diss.,Harvard University,Cambridge,MA.
Silverman,D.1992.Multiple scansions in loanword phonology;Evidence from Cantonese.Phonology 9,289-28.
Singh,R.1987.Well-formedness conditions and phonological theory.In W.U.Dressieretal,H.C.Luschutzky,O.E.Pfeiffer,and J.R.Rennison,eds.,Phonologica 1984.Cambridge;Cambridge University Press.Pp.273-85.
Steriade,D.1999.Lexical conservatism in French adjectival liaison.In J.-M.Authier,B.Bullock and L.Reed,eds.,Formal Perspectives on Romance Linguistics.Amsterdam;John Benjamins.Pp.246-70.
——.2009[2001].The phonology of perceptibility effects:The P-map and its consequences for constraint organization.In K.Hanson and S.Inkelas,eds.,The Nature of the Word:Studies in Honor of Paul Kiparsky.Cambridge,MA:The MIT Press.Pp.151-80.
Stevens,K.N.and S.J.Keyser.1989.Primary features and their enhancement in consonants.Language 65,1:81-106.
Vendelin,I.and S.Peperkamp.2006.The influence of orthography on loanword adaptations.Lingua 116,996-1007.
Wang,L.-T.(王丽婷).2009.Stress-to-tone adaptation in Chinese loanwords:An Optimality Theory perspective.M.A.thesis,National Chengchi University,Taipei.
Wright,R.2004.A review of perceptual cues and cue robustness.In B.Hayes,R.Kirchner,and D.Steriade,eds.,Phonetically Based Phonology.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.Pp.34-57.
Wu,H.-H.I.(吴晓虹).2006.Stress to tone:A study of tone loans in Mandarin Chinese.In F.-F.Hsieh and M.Kenstowicz,eds.,MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 52:Studies in Loanword Phonology.Pp.227-53.
Yip,M.1993.Cantonese loanword phonology and Optimality Theory.Journal of East Asian Linguistics 2,261-91.
——.2006.The symbiosis between perception and grammar in loanword phonology.Lingua116,950-75.
Yiu,C.Y.M.(姚玉敏).2012.Tonal adaptation of English loanwords in early Cantonese.Journal of Chinese Linguistics 40,1:190-215.
吴瑾玮,2006,现代汉语外来语声调意义之研究。《国立台湾师范大学国文学报》第40期,197-219页。
张日升,1986,香港广州话英语音译借词的声调规律。《中国语文》第1期,42-50页。
①本文不讨论以下几种借词现象:(1)以汉字为媒介的借词现象:例如日文“和制汉语”里的“哲学、科学”等例,因为这些并不牵涉到音系转换;(2)未完全同化的借词(unassimilated loanwords):如专有名词(Bauer1985),因为这些词通常会违反汉语音系的限制,如辅音丛等;(3)仿译词(calques),因这些词也与音系改造基本无关。
②另一可能的“噪音”来源:Miao(2005)注意到普通话的商品名称会有较多的删除。
③另一可能是Bauer和Benedict(1997)提到的:此高升词是“变音”。
④就笔者所知,目前似乎只有Dong(2012)应用Boersma和Hamann(2009)的理论模型,试图整合上述五种模型来分析普通话的借词音系现象,特别是像“书写形式”这样的非语法因素。
⑤请注意,延边朝鲜语不同于韩国首尔韩语,其松、强塞音并不由基频高低或是浊音起始时间(voice onset time,VOT)来区别。
⑥Wu(2006)的实验结果显示,台湾华语语者(n=15)偏好以阳平(升调)配响音起首音节,而以阴平(高平调)配不送气塞音起首音节。其差异达到了统计上的显著性,但其报导方式令人无从得知该实验是否完全排除词频效应的干扰(见4.2节)。
⑦更有趣的是,这个设定其实也具体反映在人类的文字系统里:诸如重音、声调、语调等超音段的性质很少会直接“形诸文字”,例如,汉语的声调、日语的音高重音或是英语的重音。而元音在闪语系语言的文字可以省略。只是,任何拼音系统都不会省略辅音。
⑧Kenstowicz(2012)认为(13)构成对3.2节里元音信实性高于辅音信实性的反例。笔者建议也许将其看做是遵守“词汇保守性”的缘故较为妥当。
Bauer,R.and P.Benedict.1997.Modern Cantonese Phonology.Berlin:Mouton De Gruyter.
Boersma,P.and S.Hamann.2009.Loanword adaptation as first-language phonological perception.In A.Calabrese and W.L.Wetzels,eds.,Loan Phonology.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.Pp.11-58.
Broselow,E.2009.Stress adaptation in loanword phonology:Perception and learnability.In P.Boersma and S.Hamann,eds.,Phonology in Perception.Berlin:Mouton de Gruyter.Pp.191-234.
Broselow,E.,S.Chen(陈素宜),and C.Wang(王启琳).1998.The emergence of the unmarked.Studies in Second Language Acquisition 20,251-78.
Davis,S,N.Tsujimura,and J.-Y.Tu(杜容玥).2012.Toward a taxonomy of loanword prosody.Catalan Journal of Linguistics 11,13-39.
de Lacy,P.2002.The interaction of tone and stress in Optimality Theory.Phonology 19,1-32.
Dong,X.2012.What borrowing buys us:A study of Chinese loanword phonology.Ph.D.diss.,Universiteit Utrecht,Utrecht.
Duanmu,S.(端木三).2007[2000].The Phonology of Standard Chinese.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Hsieh,F.-F.(谢丰帆).2006.High infidelity:The non-mapping of Japanese accent onto Taiwanese tone.In F.-F.Hsieh and M.Kenstowicz,eds.,MIT Working Papers in Linguistics52:Studies in Loanword Phonology.Pp.1-27.
——.2012.Low vowel raising in Sinitic languages:Assimilation,reduction,or both?Language and Linguistics 13,4:583-623.
Hsieh,F.-F.and M.Kenstowicz.2008.Phonetic knowledge in in tonal adaptation:Mandarin and English loanwords in Lhasa Tibetan.Journal of East Asian Linguistics 17,4:279-97.
Hsieh,F.-F.,M.Kenstowicz,and X.Mou.2009.Mandarin adaptations of coda nasals in English loanwords.In A.Calabrese and W.L.Wetzels,eds.,Loan Phonology.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.Pp.131-54.
Hyman,L.1970.The role of borrowings in the justification of phonological grammars.Studies in African Linguistics 1,1-48.
Ito,C.and M.Kenstowicz.2009a.Mandarin loanwords in Yanbian Korean I;Laryngeal features.Onin Kenkyuu 12,61-72.
——.2009b.Mandarin Loanwords in Yanbian Korean II;Tones.Language Research 45,1;85-109.
Kang,Y.2010.Tutorial overview;Suprasegmental adaptation in loanwords.Lingua 120,2295-310.
——.2011.Loanword phonology.In M.van Oostendorp,C.Ewen,E.Hume and K.Rice,eds.,The Blackwell Companion to Phonology.Hoboken,NJ;Wiley-Blackwell.Pp.2258-82.
Kenstowicz,M.2007.Salience and similarity in loanword adaptation;A case study from Fijian.Language Sciences 29,316-40.
——.2012.Cantonese loanwords;Conflicting faithfulness in VC rime constraints.Catalan Journal of Linguistics 11,65-96.
Kingston,J.2011.Tonogenesis.In M.van Oostendorp,C.J.Ewen,E.Hume,and K.Rice,eds.,The Blackwell Companion to Phonology.Hoboken,NJ;Wiley-Blackwell.Pp.2304-33.
Kiu,K.L.(乔洁玲).1977.Tonal rules for English loan words in Cantonese.Journal of the International Phonetic Association 7,17-22.
LaCharitfi,D.and C.Paradis.2005.Category preservation and proximity versus phonetic approximation in loanword adaptation.Linguistic Inquiry 36,223-58.
Lin,T.-H.J.(林宗宏).1998.From transliteration to grammar;A study of adaptation of foreign names into Chinese and Taiwanese Mandarin.Phonology Qualifying Paper submitted to Department of Linguistics,University of California,Irvine,CA.
Lin,Y.-H.(林燕慧).2008.Variable vowel adaptation in Standard Mandarin loanwords.Journal of East Asian Linguistics 17,363-80.
Luke,K.-K.(陆镜光)and C.-M.Lau.(刘择明).2008.On loanword truncation in Cantonese.Journal of East Asian linguistics 17,4:347-62.
Miao,R.(苗瑞琴).2005.Loanword adaptat ion in Mandarin Chinese;Perceptual,phonological and sociolinguistic factors.Ph.D.diss.,State University of New York,Stony Brook,NY.
Paradis,C.and D.LaCharit6.1997.Preservation and minimality in loanword adaptation.Journal of Linguistics 33,379-430.
Peperkamp,S.,I.Vendelin,and K.Nakamura.2008.On the perceptual origin of loanword adaptations;Experimental evidence from Japanese.Phonology 25,1;129-64.
Samuels,B.D.2009.The structure of phonological theory.Ph.D.diss.,Harvard University,Cambridge,MA.
Silverman,D.1992.Multiple scansions in loanword phonology;Evidence from Cantonese.Phonology 9,289-28.
Singh,R.1987.Well-formedness conditions and phonological theory.In W.U.Dressieretal,H.C.Luschutzky,O.E.Pfeiffer,and J.R.Rennison,eds.,Phonologica 1984.Cambridge;Cambridge University Press.Pp.273-85.
Steriade,D.1999.Lexical conservatism in French adjectival liaison.In J.-M.Authier,B.Bullock and L.Reed,eds.,Formal Perspectives on Romance Linguistics.Amsterdam;John Benjamins.Pp.246-70.
——.2009[2001].The phonology of perceptibility effects:The P-map and its consequences for constraint organization.In K.Hanson and S.Inkelas,eds.,The Nature of the Word:Studies in Honor of Paul Kiparsky.Cambridge,MA:The MIT Press.Pp.151-80.
Stevens,K.N.and S.J.Keyser.1989.Primary features and their enhancement in consonants.Language 65,1:81-106.
Vendelin,I.and S.Peperkamp.2006.The influence of orthography on loanword adaptations.Lingua 116,996-1007.
Wang,L.-T.(王丽婷).2009.Stress-to-tone adaptation in Chinese loanwords:An Optimality Theory perspective.M.A.thesis,National Chengchi University,Taipei.
Wright,R.2004.A review of perceptual cues and cue robustness.In B.Hayes,R.Kirchner,and D.Steriade,eds.,Phonetically Based Phonology.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.Pp.34-57.
Wu,H.-H.I.(吴晓虹).2006.Stress to tone:A study of tone loans in Mandarin Chinese.In F.-F.Hsieh and M.Kenstowicz,eds.,MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 52:Studies in Loanword Phonology.Pp.227-53.
Yip,M.1993.Cantonese loanword phonology and Optimality Theory.Journal of East Asian Linguistics 2,261-91.
——.2006.The symbiosis between perception and grammar in loanword phonology.Lingua116,950-75.
Yiu,C.Y.M.(姚玉敏).2012.Tonal adaptation of English loanwords in early Cantonese.Journal of Chinese Linguistics 40,1:190-215.
吴瑾玮,2006,现代汉语外来语声调意义之研究。《国立台湾师范大学国文学报》第40期,197-219页。
张日升,1986,香港广州话英语音译借词的声调规律。《中国语文》第1期,42-50页。
①本文不讨论以下几种借词现象:(1)以汉字为媒介的借词现象:例如日文“和制汉语”里的“哲学、科学”等例,因为这些并不牵涉到音系转换;(2)未完全同化的借词(unassimilated loanwords):如专有名词(Bauer1985),因为这些词通常会违反汉语音系的限制,如辅音丛等;(3)仿译词(calques),因这些词也与音系改造基本无关。
②另一可能的“噪音”来源:Miao(2005)注意到普通话的商品名称会有较多的删除。
③另一可能是Bauer和Benedict(1997)提到的:此高升词是“变音”。
④就笔者所知,目前似乎只有Dong(2012)应用Boersma和Hamann(2009)的理论模型,试图整合上述五种模型来分析普通话的借词音系现象,特别是像“书写形式”这样的非语法因素。
⑤请注意,延边朝鲜语不同于韩国首尔韩语,其松、强塞音并不由基频高低或是浊音起始时间(voice onset time,VOT)来区别。
⑥Wu(2006)的实验结果显示,台湾华语语者(n=15)偏好以阳平(升调)配响音起首音节,而以阴平(高平调)配不送气塞音起首音节。其差异达到了统计上的显著性,但其报导方式令人无从得知该实验是否完全排除词频效应的干扰(见4.2节)。
⑦更有趣的是,这个设定其实也具体反映在人类的文字系统里:诸如重音、声调、语调等超音段的性质很少会直接“形诸文字”,例如,汉语的声调、日语的音高重音或是英语的重音。而元音在闪语系语言的文字可以省略。只是,任何拼音系统都不会省略辅音。
⑧Kenstowicz(2012)认为(13)构成对3.2节里元音信实性高于辅音信实性的反例。笔者建议也许将其看做是遵守“词汇保守性”的缘故较为妥当。