个体关于加工流畅性的信念对字体大小效应的影响
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摘要
本研究考察个体关于加工流畅性的信念对学习判断(Judgmentoflearning,简称JOL)的影响,探讨字体大小效应的产生机制。研究通过两个实验分别考察个体关于"字体大小影响加工流畅性"(实验1)以及"加工流畅性影响记忆效果"(实验2)等信念对字体大小效应的影响。结果发现:1)当人们相信大字体更流畅(实验1)或者越流畅越好记(实验2)时,他们在大字体项目上的JOL值显著高于小字体项目上的JOL值; 2)当人们相信小字体更流畅(实验1)或者流畅性与记忆无关(实验2)时,他们在大字体和小字体项目上的JOL值无显著差异,字体大小效应消失。上述结果表明,个体关于加工流畅性的信念是字体大小效应产生的重要原因,是人们进行学习判断的重要线索。
The font-size effect refers to the phenomenon by which the judgments of learning(JOLs) are higher for words presented in a larger versus smaller font size. Recently, it has received a great deal of attention in the area of metacognition because the cognitive mechanism of this effect can provide a way to understand how individuals make judgments of learning, which has been a central question in metacognitive monitoring research. So far, there have been two hypotheses about the mechanism underlying this effect:(a) the fluency hypothesis, which claims that JOLs are higher for larger words because they are presumably easier to process and(b) the belief hypothesis, which argues that the font-size effect is caused by people's beliefs(e.g., beliefs about how font size affects memory). Recently, Mueller and Dunlosky(2017) proposed a new account that the individual's belief about processing fluency could produce the font-size effect and went on to provide indirect evidence of this. Building on the work of Mueller and Dunlosky, the present study aims to provide direct evidence supporting this idea that beliefs about processing fluency influence the font-size effect. Furthermore, the current study extended the work of Mueller and Dunlosky by splitting the beliefs about processing fluency into two components: the impact of font size on processing fluency and the impact of processing fluency on memory performance. In this study, we conducted two experiments to investigate the influence of beliefs about processing fluency on the font-size effect via different instructions. Experiment 1 focused on the influence of beliefs about how font size impacts processing fluency on JOLs. Seventy-five participants were randomly assigned to three groups: group 1 received instructions about how the large font words were easier to process, group 2 received instructions about how small font words were easier to process, while the control group did not receive any such instructions. Then, all participants studied word pairs in large(48-point) or small(18-point) font sizes, made JOLs for each word pair and completed a cued-recall test. Experiment 2 focused on the influence of beliefs about how processing fluency impacts memory on JOLs. Eighty-nine participants were randomly assigned to three groups: group 1 received instructions stating that easier processing was positively associated with better memory performance, group 2 received instructions stating that processing fluency was unrelated to memory performance, and the control group did not receive any such instructions. All participants completed tasks similar to experiment 1. There were two main results. First, JOLs were higher for large fonts when participants were led to believe that the large font was easier to process(group 1 in experiment 1) or the ease of processing was positively related to better memory performance(group 1 in experiment 2). Second, no difference in JOLs was observed when participants were instructed to believe that the small font was processed much more easily(group 2 in experiment 1) or processing fluency was irrelevant to memory performance(group 2 in experiment 2), i.e., there was no font-size effect. In conclusion, our results provide direct evidence that beliefs about processing fluency can produce the font-size effect, and that they play a vital role in judgments of learning.
The font-size effect refers to the phenomenon by which the judgments of learning(JOLs) are higher for words presented in a larger versus smaller font size. Recently, it has received a great deal of attention in the area of metacognition because the cognitive mechanism of this effect can provide a way to understand how individuals make judgments of learning, which has been a central question in metacognitive monitoring research. So far, there have been two hypotheses about the mechanism underlying this effect:(a) the fluency hypothesis, which claims that JOLs are higher for larger words because they are presumably easier to process and(b) the belief hypothesis, which argues that the font-size effect is caused by people's beliefs(e.g., beliefs about how font size affects memory). Recently, Mueller and Dunlosky(2017) proposed a new account that the individual's belief about processing fluency could produce the font-size effect and went on to provide indirect evidence of this. Building on the work of Mueller and Dunlosky, the present study aims to provide direct evidence supporting this idea that beliefs about processing fluency influence the font-size effect. Furthermore, the current study extended the work of Mueller and Dunlosky by splitting the beliefs about processing fluency into two components: the impact of font size on processing fluency and the impact of processing fluency on memory performance. In this study, we conducted two experiments to investigate the influence of beliefs about processing fluency on the font-size effect via different instructions. Experiment 1 focused on the influence of beliefs about how font size impacts processing fluency on JOLs. Seventy-five participants were randomly assigned to three groups: group 1 received instructions about how the large font words were easier to process, group 2 received instructions about how small font words were easier to process, while the control group did not receive any such instructions. Then, all participants studied word pairs in large(48-point) or small(18-point) font sizes, made JOLs for each word pair and completed a cued-recall test. Experiment 2 focused on the influence of beliefs about how processing fluency impacts memory on JOLs. Eighty-nine participants were randomly assigned to three groups: group 1 received instructions stating that easier processing was positively associated with better memory performance, group 2 received instructions stating that processing fluency was unrelated to memory performance, and the control group did not receive any such instructions. All participants completed tasks similar to experiment 1. There were two main results. First, JOLs were higher for large fonts when participants were led to believe that the large font was easier to process(group 1 in experiment 1) or the ease of processing was positively related to better memory performance(group 1 in experiment 2). Second, no difference in JOLs was observed when participants were instructed to believe that the small font was processed much more easily(group 2 in experiment 1) or processing fluency was irrelevant to memory performance(group 2 in experiment 2), i.e., there was no font-size effect. In conclusion, our results provide direct evidence that beliefs about processing fluency can produce the font-size effect, and that they play a vital role in judgments of learning.
引文
Alter,A.L.,&Oppenheimer,D.M.(2009).Uniting the tribes of fluency to form a metacognitive nation.Personality and Social Psychology Review,13(3),219-235.
Besken,M.,&Mulligan,N.W.(2013).Easily perceived,easily remembered?Perceptual interference produces a double dissociation between metamemory and memory performance.Memory&Cognition,41(6),897-903.
Bjork,R.A.,Dunlosky,J.,&Kornell,N.(2013).Selfregulated learning:Beliefs,techniques,and illusions.Annual Review of Psychology,64,417-444.
Carpenter,S.K.,Wilford,M.M.,Kornell,N.,&Mullaney,K.M.(2013).Appearances can be deceiving:Instructor fluency increases perceptions of learning without increasing actual learning.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,20(6),1350-1356.
Dunlosky,J.,&Metcalfe,J.(2009).Metacognition:A textbook of cognition,educational,life span,and applied psychology.Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
Dunlosky,J.,Mueller,M.,&Tauber,S.K.(2015).The contribution of processing fluency(and beliefs)to people’s judgments of learning.In D.S.Lindsay,C.M.Kelley,A.P.Yonelinas,&H.L.Roediger,III(Eds.),Remembering:Attributions,processes,and control in human memory:Essays in honor of Larry Jacoby(pp.46-64).New York:Psychology Press.
Dunlosky,J.,&Rawson,K.A.(2012).Overconfidence produces underachievement:Inaccurate self evaluations undermine students’learning and retention.Learning and Instruction,22(4),271-280.
Faul,F.,Erdfelder,E.,Lang,A.,&Buchner,A.(2007).G*Power 3:A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social,behavioral,and biomedical sciences.Behavior Research Methods,39(2),175-191.
Finn,B.,&Tauber,S.K.(2015).Erratum to:When confidence is not a signal of knowing:How students’experiences and beliefs about processing fluency can lead to miscalibrated confidence.Educational Psychology Review,28(1),205-205.
Hofer,B.K.(1999).Instructional context in the college mathematics classroom:Epistemological beliefs and student motivation.Journal of Staff Program&Organization Development,16(2),73-82.
Hu,X.,Li,T.,Zheng,J.,Su,N.,Liu,Z.,&Liang,L.(2015).How much do metamemory beliefs contribute to the font-size effect in judgments of learning?Plos One,10(11),e0142351.
Jia,X.,Li,P.,Li,X.,Zhang,Y.,Cao,W.,Cao,L.,&Li,W.(2016).The effect of word frequency on judgments of learning:Contributions of beliefs and processing fluency.Frontiers in Psychology,6,1995.
Koriat,A.(2000).The feeling of knowing:Some metatheoretical implications for consciousness and control.Consciousness and Cognition,9(2),149-171.
Koriat,A.(2007).Metacognition and consciousness.In P.D.Zelazo,M.Moscovitch,&E.Thompson(Eds.),The Cambridge handbook of consciousness(pp.289-325).New York:Cambridge University Press.
Kornell,N.,&Metcalfe,J.(2006).Study efficacy and the region of proximal learning framework.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,32(3),609-622.
Kornell,N.,Rhodes,M.G.,Castel,A.D.,&Tauber,S.K.(2011).The ease-of-processing heuristic and the stability bias:Dissociating memory,memory beliefs,and memory judgments.Psychological Science,22(6),787-794.
Li,T.,Hu,X.,Zheng,J.,Su,N.,Liu,Z.,&Luo,L.(2016).The influence of visual mental imagery size on metamemory accuracy in judgment of learning.Memory,25(2),244-253.
Miele,D.B.,Finn,B.,&Molden,D.C.(2011).Does easily learned mean easily remembered?It depends on your beliefs about intelligence.Psychological Science,22(3),320-324.
Mueller,M.L.,&Dunlosky,J.(2017).How beliefs can impact judgments of learning:Evaluating analytic processing theory with beliefs about fluency.Journal of Memory and Language,93,245-258.
Mueller,M.L.,Dunlosky,J.,&Tauber,S.K.(2016).The effect of identical word pairs on people's metamemory judgments:What are the contributions of processing fluency and beliefs about memory?Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,69(4),781-799.
Mueller,M.L.,Dunlosky,J.,Tauber,S.K.,&Rhodes,M.G.(2014).The font-size effect on judgments of learning:Does it exemplify fluency effects or reflect people’s beliefs about memory?Journal of Memory and Language,70,1-12.
Mueller,M.L.,Tauber,S.K.,&Dunlosky,J.(2013).Contributions of beliefs and processing fluency to the effect of relatedness on judgments of learning.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,20(2),378-384.
Nist,S.L.,&Holschuh,J.P.(2005).Practical applications of the research on epistemological beliefs.Journal of College Reading and Learning,35(2),84-92.
Rhodes,M.G.,&Castel,A.D.(2008).Memory predictions are influenced by perceptual information:Evidence for metacognitive illusions.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,137(4),615-625.
Rouder,J.N.,Speckman,P.L.,Sun,D.,Morey,R.D.,&Iverson,G.(2009).Bayesian t tests for accepting and rejecting the null hypothesis.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,16(2),225-237.
Simon,D.A.,&Bjork,R.A.(2001).Metacognition in motor learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory&Cognition,27(4),907-912.
Susser,J.A.,&Mulligan,N.W.(2015).The effect of motoric fluency on metamemory.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,22(4),1014-1019.
Thiede,K.W.,Anderson,M.C.M.,&Therriault,D.(2003).Accuracy of metacognitive monitoring affects learning of texts.Journal of Educational Psychology,95(1),66-73.
Wagenmakers,E.-J.,Love,J.,Marsman,M.,Jamil,T.,Ly,A.,Verhagen,J.,...van Doorn,J.(2018).Bayesian inference for psychology.Part II.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,25(1),58-76.
Yang,C.,Huang,T.S-T.,&Shanks,D.R.(2018).Perceptual fluency affects judgments of learning:The font size effect.Journal of Memory and Language,99,99-110.
Yue,C.L.,Castel,A.D.,&Bjork,R.A.(2013).When disfluency is-and is not-a desirable difficulty:The influence of typeface clarity on metacognitive judgments and memory.Memory&Cognition,41(2),229-241.
1贝叶斯因子在线计算工具网址:http://pcl.missouri.edu/bayesfactor
Besken,M.,&Mulligan,N.W.(2013).Easily perceived,easily remembered?Perceptual interference produces a double dissociation between metamemory and memory performance.Memory&Cognition,41(6),897-903.
Bjork,R.A.,Dunlosky,J.,&Kornell,N.(2013).Selfregulated learning:Beliefs,techniques,and illusions.Annual Review of Psychology,64,417-444.
Carpenter,S.K.,Wilford,M.M.,Kornell,N.,&Mullaney,K.M.(2013).Appearances can be deceiving:Instructor fluency increases perceptions of learning without increasing actual learning.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,20(6),1350-1356.
Dunlosky,J.,&Metcalfe,J.(2009).Metacognition:A textbook of cognition,educational,life span,and applied psychology.Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage.
Dunlosky,J.,Mueller,M.,&Tauber,S.K.(2015).The contribution of processing fluency(and beliefs)to people’s judgments of learning.In D.S.Lindsay,C.M.Kelley,A.P.Yonelinas,&H.L.Roediger,III(Eds.),Remembering:Attributions,processes,and control in human memory:Essays in honor of Larry Jacoby(pp.46-64).New York:Psychology Press.
Dunlosky,J.,&Rawson,K.A.(2012).Overconfidence produces underachievement:Inaccurate self evaluations undermine students’learning and retention.Learning and Instruction,22(4),271-280.
Faul,F.,Erdfelder,E.,Lang,A.,&Buchner,A.(2007).G*Power 3:A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social,behavioral,and biomedical sciences.Behavior Research Methods,39(2),175-191.
Finn,B.,&Tauber,S.K.(2015).Erratum to:When confidence is not a signal of knowing:How students’experiences and beliefs about processing fluency can lead to miscalibrated confidence.Educational Psychology Review,28(1),205-205.
Hofer,B.K.(1999).Instructional context in the college mathematics classroom:Epistemological beliefs and student motivation.Journal of Staff Program&Organization Development,16(2),73-82.
Hu,X.,Li,T.,Zheng,J.,Su,N.,Liu,Z.,&Liang,L.(2015).How much do metamemory beliefs contribute to the font-size effect in judgments of learning?Plos One,10(11),e0142351.
Jia,X.,Li,P.,Li,X.,Zhang,Y.,Cao,W.,Cao,L.,&Li,W.(2016).The effect of word frequency on judgments of learning:Contributions of beliefs and processing fluency.Frontiers in Psychology,6,1995.
Koriat,A.(2000).The feeling of knowing:Some metatheoretical implications for consciousness and control.Consciousness and Cognition,9(2),149-171.
Koriat,A.(2007).Metacognition and consciousness.In P.D.Zelazo,M.Moscovitch,&E.Thompson(Eds.),The Cambridge handbook of consciousness(pp.289-325).New York:Cambridge University Press.
Kornell,N.,&Metcalfe,J.(2006).Study efficacy and the region of proximal learning framework.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,32(3),609-622.
Kornell,N.,Rhodes,M.G.,Castel,A.D.,&Tauber,S.K.(2011).The ease-of-processing heuristic and the stability bias:Dissociating memory,memory beliefs,and memory judgments.Psychological Science,22(6),787-794.
Li,T.,Hu,X.,Zheng,J.,Su,N.,Liu,Z.,&Luo,L.(2016).The influence of visual mental imagery size on metamemory accuracy in judgment of learning.Memory,25(2),244-253.
Miele,D.B.,Finn,B.,&Molden,D.C.(2011).Does easily learned mean easily remembered?It depends on your beliefs about intelligence.Psychological Science,22(3),320-324.
Mueller,M.L.,&Dunlosky,J.(2017).How beliefs can impact judgments of learning:Evaluating analytic processing theory with beliefs about fluency.Journal of Memory and Language,93,245-258.
Mueller,M.L.,Dunlosky,J.,&Tauber,S.K.(2016).The effect of identical word pairs on people's metamemory judgments:What are the contributions of processing fluency and beliefs about memory?Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,69(4),781-799.
Mueller,M.L.,Dunlosky,J.,Tauber,S.K.,&Rhodes,M.G.(2014).The font-size effect on judgments of learning:Does it exemplify fluency effects or reflect people’s beliefs about memory?Journal of Memory and Language,70,1-12.
Mueller,M.L.,Tauber,S.K.,&Dunlosky,J.(2013).Contributions of beliefs and processing fluency to the effect of relatedness on judgments of learning.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,20(2),378-384.
Nist,S.L.,&Holschuh,J.P.(2005).Practical applications of the research on epistemological beliefs.Journal of College Reading and Learning,35(2),84-92.
Rhodes,M.G.,&Castel,A.D.(2008).Memory predictions are influenced by perceptual information:Evidence for metacognitive illusions.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,137(4),615-625.
Rouder,J.N.,Speckman,P.L.,Sun,D.,Morey,R.D.,&Iverson,G.(2009).Bayesian t tests for accepting and rejecting the null hypothesis.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,16(2),225-237.
Simon,D.A.,&Bjork,R.A.(2001).Metacognition in motor learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory&Cognition,27(4),907-912.
Susser,J.A.,&Mulligan,N.W.(2015).The effect of motoric fluency on metamemory.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,22(4),1014-1019.
Thiede,K.W.,Anderson,M.C.M.,&Therriault,D.(2003).Accuracy of metacognitive monitoring affects learning of texts.Journal of Educational Psychology,95(1),66-73.
Wagenmakers,E.-J.,Love,J.,Marsman,M.,Jamil,T.,Ly,A.,Verhagen,J.,...van Doorn,J.(2018).Bayesian inference for psychology.Part II.Psychonomic Bulletin&Review,25(1),58-76.
Yang,C.,Huang,T.S-T.,&Shanks,D.R.(2018).Perceptual fluency affects judgments of learning:The font size effect.Journal of Memory and Language,99,99-110.
Yue,C.L.,Castel,A.D.,&Bjork,R.A.(2013).When disfluency is-and is not-a desirable difficulty:The influence of typeface clarity on metacognitive judgments and memory.Memory&Cognition,41(2),229-241.
1贝叶斯因子在线计算工具网址:http://pcl.missouri.edu/bayesfactor