情绪对连续事件定向遗忘的影响
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摘要
本研究采用项目法定向遗忘范式以中性和负性连续事件的视频为实验材料,通过2个实验考察了情绪对连续事件定向遗忘的影响,并进一步探讨了情绪对细节记忆和要义记忆的定向遗忘的影响。结果发现,情绪可以消除细节记忆的定向遗忘效应,而仅有要义记忆的定向遗忘效应则主要受到事件连续性而非情绪的影响。
Forgetting is an adaptive process that can limit the interferences from irrelevant distractors and update valuable information. With regard to negative events, intentional forgetting can effectively help us to recover from trauma. The research on the intentional forgetting of emotional information usually adopts the directed forgetting paradigm. The better memory performance of R items relative to F items is referred to as the typically directed forgetting effect. Although emotional information is thought to be easier to remember than neutral information because of the attentional capture and elaborative process, whether emotional information is more resistant to forgetting is obscured. Most studies on emotional directed forgetting used various discrete items,such as words and pictures, and few addressed continuous events that are actually common in our episodic memory. Directed forgetting is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon because specific and general information appears to be forgotten at different rates. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the influence of emotions on the directed forgetting effect of continuous events. This study also explores the differences in forgetting rates between general/gist memory and specific memory.In the present study, we adopted the event directed paradigm that embeds memory instructions into continuous videos. In experiment 1, 36 participants were equally divided into two groups: one group watched a neutral video, and the other group watched a negative one. Each video contained nine R segments and nine F segments that were surrounded by green and purple borders. The colored borders acted as memory instructions.The participants were asked to remember the video segments when the border was green and to forget the video segments when the border was purple. The test phase involved free recall and recognition. The participants were requested to recall all information about the video regardless of the classification of the memory instruction(R or F segments). Then, the participants were asked to identify the old pictures among the distractors. The old pictures were taken from the studied videos, and the distractors were slightly similar to the old pictures. The participants' responses were classified as general/gist memory and specific memory on the basis of previous studies. In experiment 2, we disrupted the play order of segments to further explore the influence of continuity on the directed forgetting effect.The results of experiment 1 showed that the directed forgetting effect was lower in the negative video than in the neutral video. In addition, the participants demonstrated good memory for the general/gist information of the negative video in free recall. In the recognition phase, no directed forgetting effect was observed for specific memory in the negative video. The result indicated that emotions impaired or eliminated directed forgetting for continuous events. However, the performance of the gist-only memory for the R and F segments was not significant in the neutral and negative videos. Therefore, we speculated that the sequential play of segments might have led to the possibility of participants correctly guessing the general gist of the content. Therefore, we disrupted the order of segments in experiment 2, and the results showed a typically directed forgetting effect for gist-only memory.In conclusion, directed forgetting could appear in continuous events. However, emotions impair the directed forgetting effect for a specific memory. For gist-only memory, the directed forgetting effect is affected by the continuity of events.
Forgetting is an adaptive process that can limit the interferences from irrelevant distractors and update valuable information. With regard to negative events, intentional forgetting can effectively help us to recover from trauma. The research on the intentional forgetting of emotional information usually adopts the directed forgetting paradigm. The better memory performance of R items relative to F items is referred to as the typically directed forgetting effect. Although emotional information is thought to be easier to remember than neutral information because of the attentional capture and elaborative process, whether emotional information is more resistant to forgetting is obscured. Most studies on emotional directed forgetting used various discrete items,such as words and pictures, and few addressed continuous events that are actually common in our episodic memory. Directed forgetting is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon because specific and general information appears to be forgotten at different rates. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the influence of emotions on the directed forgetting effect of continuous events. This study also explores the differences in forgetting rates between general/gist memory and specific memory.In the present study, we adopted the event directed paradigm that embeds memory instructions into continuous videos. In experiment 1, 36 participants were equally divided into two groups: one group watched a neutral video, and the other group watched a negative one. Each video contained nine R segments and nine F segments that were surrounded by green and purple borders. The colored borders acted as memory instructions.The participants were asked to remember the video segments when the border was green and to forget the video segments when the border was purple. The test phase involved free recall and recognition. The participants were requested to recall all information about the video regardless of the classification of the memory instruction(R or F segments). Then, the participants were asked to identify the old pictures among the distractors. The old pictures were taken from the studied videos, and the distractors were slightly similar to the old pictures. The participants' responses were classified as general/gist memory and specific memory on the basis of previous studies. In experiment 2, we disrupted the play order of segments to further explore the influence of continuity on the directed forgetting effect.The results of experiment 1 showed that the directed forgetting effect was lower in the negative video than in the neutral video. In addition, the participants demonstrated good memory for the general/gist information of the negative video in free recall. In the recognition phase, no directed forgetting effect was observed for specific memory in the negative video. The result indicated that emotions impaired or eliminated directed forgetting for continuous events. However, the performance of the gist-only memory for the R and F segments was not significant in the neutral and negative videos. Therefore, we speculated that the sequential play of segments might have led to the possibility of participants correctly guessing the general gist of the content. Therefore, we disrupted the order of segments in experiment 2, and the results showed a typically directed forgetting effect for gist-only memory.In conclusion, directed forgetting could appear in continuous events. However, emotions impair the directed forgetting effect for a specific memory. For gist-only memory, the directed forgetting effect is affected by the continuity of events.
引文
Adolphs,R.,Denburg,N.L.,&Tranel,D.(2001).The amygdala's role in long-term declarative memory for gist and detail.Behavioral Neuroscience,115(5),983-992.
Adolphs,R.,Tranel,D.,&Buchanan,T.W.(2005).Amygdala damage impairs emotional memory for gist but not details of complex stimuli.Nature Neuroscience,8(4),512-518.
Bai,X.J.,Wang,Y.Y.,&Yang,H.B.(2012).The impact of mood-congruence on intentional forgetting.Journal of Psychological Science,35(1),9-15.[白学军,王媛媛,杨海波.(2012).情绪一致性对有意遗忘的影响.心理科学,35(1),9-15.]
Bailey,K.,&Chapman,P.(2012).When can we choose to forget?An ERP study into item-method directed forgetting of emotional words.Brain and Cognition,78(2),133-147.
Bancroft,T.D.,Hockley,W.E.,&Farquhar,R.(2013).The longer we have to forget the more we remember:The ironic effect of postcue duration in item-based directed forgetting.Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory&Cognition,39(3),691-699.
Barnier,A.J.,Conway,M.A.,Mayoh,L.,Speyer,J.,Avizmil,O.,&Harris,C.B.(2007).Directed forgetting of recently recalled autobiographical memories.Journal of Experimental Psychology General,136(2),301-322.
Basden,B.H.,&Basden,D.R.(1996).Directed forgetting:Further comparisons of the item and list methods.Memory,4(6),633-653.
Basden,B.H.,Basden,D.R.,&Gargano,G.J.(1993).Directed forgetting in implicit and explicit memory tests:Acomparison of methods.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory and Cognition,19(3),603-616.
Bjork,R.A.(1970).Positive forgetting:The noninterference of items intentionally forgotten.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,9(3),255-268.
Bjork,R.A.(1972).Theoretical implications of directed forgetting.In A.W.Melton,&E.Martin(Eds.),Coding processes in human memory(pp.217-235).Washington,DC:Winston.Acta Psycholo
Bjork, R. A.(1989). Retrieval inhibition as an adaptive mechanism in human memory. In H. L. Rosdiger&F. I. M.Craik(Eds.), Varieties of Memory&Consciousness:Essays in Honor of Enddel Tulving(pp.309–330). Hillside, NJ:Erlbaum.
Bjork, R. A.,&Woodward, A. E.(1973). Directed forgetting of individual words in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 99(1), 22–27.
Burke, A., Heuer, F.,&Reisberg, D.(1992). Remembering emotional events. Memory&Cognition, 20(3), 277–290.
Cohens, J.(1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Technometrics, 31(4), 499–500.
Conway, M. A., Harries, K., Noyes, J., Racsma′ny, M.,&Frankish, C. R.(2000). The disruption and dissolution of directed forgetting:Inhibitory control of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 43(3), 409–430.
Cui, L. X.,&Huang, M. R.(2007). Effects of rumination and distraction on negative emotion and autobiographical memory. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 39(1), 78–87.[崔丽弦,黄敏儿.(2007).沉思和分心对负情绪和自传体记忆的影响.心理学报, 39(1), 78–87.]
Fawcett, J. M., Taylor, T. L.,&Lynn, N.(2014). Event-method directed forgetting:Forgetting a video segment is more effortful than remembering it. Acta Psychologica, 144(2),332 –343.
Fawcett, J. M., Taylor, T. L.,&Nadel, L.(2013). Intentional forgetting diminishes memory for continuous events.Memory, 21(6), 675–694.
Ge, C., Tian, Z., Zhang, Z. N.,&Sun, B.(2015). The research of negative and neutral words on directed forgetting effects.Studies of Psychology and Behavior, 13(4), 461–465.[葛操,田峥,张振宁,孙彬.(2015).负性词语与中性词语的定向遗忘效应.心理与行为研究, 13(4), 461–465.]
Geiselman, R. E.,&Bagheri, B.(1985). Repetition effects in directed forgetting:Evidence for retrieval inhibition.Memory&Cognition, 13(1), 57–62.
Golding, J. M., Long, D. L.,&Macleod, C. M.(1994). You cant always forget what you want:Directed forgetting of related words. Journal of Memory&Language, 33(4),493 –510.
Hauswald, A., Schulz, H., Iordanov, T.,&Kissler, J.(2011).ERP dynamics underlying successful directed forgetting of neutral but not negative pictures. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 6(4), 450–459.
Hupbach, A.(2017). Long-term effects of directed forgetting.Memory, 26(3), 321–329.
Jia, H. Y.,&Liang, S. R.(2010). Emotion affects worddirected forgetting. Psychological Science, 33(2), 416–418.[贾宏燕,梁拴荣.(2010).情绪对单字法定向遗忘的影响.心理科学, 33(2), 416-418.]
Jia, Z., Mao, W. B.,&Dong, L. Y.(2014). Effect of events and self-relevance on directed forgetting of negative emotional memory. Psychological Science, 37(4), 840–844.[贾喆,毛伟宾,东利云.(2014).内容与自我关联性对负性情绪记忆定向遗忘的影响.心理科学, 37(4), 840–844.]
Joslyn, S. L.,&Oakes, M. A.(2005). Directed forgetting of autobiographical events. Memory&Cognition, 33(4), 577–587.
Kensinger, E. A.(2009). Remembering the details:Effects of emotion. Emotion Review, 1(2), 99–113.
Kensinger, E. A., Garoff-Eaton, R. J.,&Schacter, D. L.(2006).Memory for specific visual details can be enhanced by negative arousing content. Journal of Memory&Language,54 (1), 99–112.
Kensinger, E. A., Garoff-Eaton, R. J.,&Schacter, D. L.(2007).Effects of emotion on memory specificity:Memory tradeoffs elicited by negative visually arousing stimuli. Journal of Memory and Language, 56(4), 575–591.
Kern, R. P., Libkuman, T. M., Otani, H.,&Holmes, K.(2005).Emotional stimuli, divided attention, and memory. Emotion,5 (4), 408–417.
Lehman, M.,&Malmberg, K. J.(2009). A global theory of remembering and forgetting from multiple lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning Memory and Cognition,35 (4), 970–988.
Nowicka, A., Marchewka, A., Jednoróg, K., Tacikowski, P.,&Brechmann, A.(2011). Forgetting of emotional information is hard:An fMRI study of directed forgetting. Cerebral Cortex, 21(3), 539–549.
Ohman, A., Flykt, A.,&Esteves, F.(2001). Emotion drives attention:Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 130(3), 466–478.
Payne, B. K.,&Corrigan, E.(2007). Emotional constraints on intentional forgetting. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(5), 780–786.
Quinlan, C. K.,&Taylor, T. L.(2014).“I never forget a face,but in your case I’ll be glad to make an exception”:Intentional forgetting of emotional faces. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68(3), 212–221.
Robinson, A. K., Plaut, D. C.,&Behrmann, M.(2017). Word and face processing engage overlapping distributed networks:Evidence from RSVP and EEG investigations. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 146(7), 943–961.
Sahakyan, L.,&Goodmon, L. B.(2007). The influence of directional associations on directed forgetting and interference.Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory&Cognition, 33(6), 1035–1049.
Sahakyan, L., Delaney, P. F., Foster, N. L.,&Abushanab, B.(2013). Chapter four-list-method directed forgetting in cognitive and clinical research:A theoretical and methodologicalreview. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 59, 131–189.
Snodgrass, J. G.,&Corwin, J.(1988). Perceptual identification thresholds for 150 fragmented pictures from the snodgrass and vanderwart picture set. Perceptual and Motor Skills,67 (1), 3–36.
Tolin, D. F., Hamlin, C.,&Foa, E. B.(2002). Directed forgetting in obsessivecompulsive disorder:Replication and extension. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(7),793 –803.
Wessel, I.,&Merckelbach, H.(2006). Forgetting “murder” is not harder than forgetting “circle”:List wise-directed forgetting of emotional words. Cognition and Emotion, 20(1), 129–137.
Woodward, A. E.,&Bjork, R. A.(1971). Forgetting and remembering in free recall:Intentional and unintentional.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 89(1), 109–116.
Yang, W. J., Yang, J. H., Xiao, X.,&Zhang, Q. L.(2012).Directed forgetting of negative memories and its mechanisms. Psychological Science, 35(1), 50–55.[杨文静,杨金华,肖宵,张庆林.(2012).负性情绪材料的定向遗忘及心理机制.心理科学, 35(1), 50–55.]Sinica
Yang, W. J., Zhang, Q. L., Wu, Z. L.,&Jia, L.(2010).Intentional forgetting of emotional memory. Advances in Psychological Science, 18(6), 871–877.[杨文静,张庆林,伍泽莲,贾磊.(2010).情绪性记忆的主动遗忘.心理科学进展, 18(6), 871–877.]
Yonelinas, A. P.,&Jacoby, L. L.(1995). The relation between remembering and knowing as bases for recognition:Effects of size congruency. Journal of Memory&Language, 34(5),622 –643.
Zacks, R. T., Radvansky, G.,&Hasher, L.(1996). Studies of directed forgetting in older adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory and Cognition, 22(1),143 –156.
Adolphs,R.,Tranel,D.,&Buchanan,T.W.(2005).Amygdala damage impairs emotional memory for gist but not details of complex stimuli.Nature Neuroscience,8(4),512-518.
Bai,X.J.,Wang,Y.Y.,&Yang,H.B.(2012).The impact of mood-congruence on intentional forgetting.Journal of Psychological Science,35(1),9-15.[白学军,王媛媛,杨海波.(2012).情绪一致性对有意遗忘的影响.心理科学,35(1),9-15.]
Bailey,K.,&Chapman,P.(2012).When can we choose to forget?An ERP study into item-method directed forgetting of emotional words.Brain and Cognition,78(2),133-147.
Bancroft,T.D.,Hockley,W.E.,&Farquhar,R.(2013).The longer we have to forget the more we remember:The ironic effect of postcue duration in item-based directed forgetting.Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory&Cognition,39(3),691-699.
Barnier,A.J.,Conway,M.A.,Mayoh,L.,Speyer,J.,Avizmil,O.,&Harris,C.B.(2007).Directed forgetting of recently recalled autobiographical memories.Journal of Experimental Psychology General,136(2),301-322.
Basden,B.H.,&Basden,D.R.(1996).Directed forgetting:Further comparisons of the item and list methods.Memory,4(6),633-653.
Basden,B.H.,Basden,D.R.,&Gargano,G.J.(1993).Directed forgetting in implicit and explicit memory tests:Acomparison of methods.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory and Cognition,19(3),603-616.
Bjork,R.A.(1970).Positive forgetting:The noninterference of items intentionally forgotten.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,9(3),255-268.
Bjork,R.A.(1972).Theoretical implications of directed forgetting.In A.W.Melton,&E.Martin(Eds.),Coding processes in human memory(pp.217-235).Washington,DC:Winston.Acta Psycholo
Bjork, R. A.(1989). Retrieval inhibition as an adaptive mechanism in human memory. In H. L. Rosdiger&F. I. M.Craik(Eds.), Varieties of Memory&Consciousness:Essays in Honor of Enddel Tulving(pp.309–330). Hillside, NJ:Erlbaum.
Bjork, R. A.,&Woodward, A. E.(1973). Directed forgetting of individual words in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 99(1), 22–27.
Burke, A., Heuer, F.,&Reisberg, D.(1992). Remembering emotional events. Memory&Cognition, 20(3), 277–290.
Cohens, J.(1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Technometrics, 31(4), 499–500.
Conway, M. A., Harries, K., Noyes, J., Racsma′ny, M.,&Frankish, C. R.(2000). The disruption and dissolution of directed forgetting:Inhibitory control of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 43(3), 409–430.
Cui, L. X.,&Huang, M. R.(2007). Effects of rumination and distraction on negative emotion and autobiographical memory. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 39(1), 78–87.[崔丽弦,黄敏儿.(2007).沉思和分心对负情绪和自传体记忆的影响.心理学报, 39(1), 78–87.]
Fawcett, J. M., Taylor, T. L.,&Lynn, N.(2014). Event-method directed forgetting:Forgetting a video segment is more effortful than remembering it. Acta Psychologica, 144(2),332 –343.
Fawcett, J. M., Taylor, T. L.,&Nadel, L.(2013). Intentional forgetting diminishes memory for continuous events.Memory, 21(6), 675–694.
Ge, C., Tian, Z., Zhang, Z. N.,&Sun, B.(2015). The research of negative and neutral words on directed forgetting effects.Studies of Psychology and Behavior, 13(4), 461–465.[葛操,田峥,张振宁,孙彬.(2015).负性词语与中性词语的定向遗忘效应.心理与行为研究, 13(4), 461–465.]
Geiselman, R. E.,&Bagheri, B.(1985). Repetition effects in directed forgetting:Evidence for retrieval inhibition.Memory&Cognition, 13(1), 57–62.
Golding, J. M., Long, D. L.,&Macleod, C. M.(1994). You cant always forget what you want:Directed forgetting of related words. Journal of Memory&Language, 33(4),493 –510.
Hauswald, A., Schulz, H., Iordanov, T.,&Kissler, J.(2011).ERP dynamics underlying successful directed forgetting of neutral but not negative pictures. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 6(4), 450–459.
Hupbach, A.(2017). Long-term effects of directed forgetting.Memory, 26(3), 321–329.
Jia, H. Y.,&Liang, S. R.(2010). Emotion affects worddirected forgetting. Psychological Science, 33(2), 416–418.[贾宏燕,梁拴荣.(2010).情绪对单字法定向遗忘的影响.心理科学, 33(2), 416-418.]
Jia, Z., Mao, W. B.,&Dong, L. Y.(2014). Effect of events and self-relevance on directed forgetting of negative emotional memory. Psychological Science, 37(4), 840–844.[贾喆,毛伟宾,东利云.(2014).内容与自我关联性对负性情绪记忆定向遗忘的影响.心理科学, 37(4), 840–844.]
Joslyn, S. L.,&Oakes, M. A.(2005). Directed forgetting of autobiographical events. Memory&Cognition, 33(4), 577–587.
Kensinger, E. A.(2009). Remembering the details:Effects of emotion. Emotion Review, 1(2), 99–113.
Kensinger, E. A., Garoff-Eaton, R. J.,&Schacter, D. L.(2006).Memory for specific visual details can be enhanced by negative arousing content. Journal of Memory&Language,54 (1), 99–112.
Kensinger, E. A., Garoff-Eaton, R. J.,&Schacter, D. L.(2007).Effects of emotion on memory specificity:Memory tradeoffs elicited by negative visually arousing stimuli. Journal of Memory and Language, 56(4), 575–591.
Kern, R. P., Libkuman, T. M., Otani, H.,&Holmes, K.(2005).Emotional stimuli, divided attention, and memory. Emotion,5 (4), 408–417.
Lehman, M.,&Malmberg, K. J.(2009). A global theory of remembering and forgetting from multiple lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning Memory and Cognition,35 (4), 970–988.
Nowicka, A., Marchewka, A., Jednoróg, K., Tacikowski, P.,&Brechmann, A.(2011). Forgetting of emotional information is hard:An fMRI study of directed forgetting. Cerebral Cortex, 21(3), 539–549.
Ohman, A., Flykt, A.,&Esteves, F.(2001). Emotion drives attention:Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 130(3), 466–478.
Payne, B. K.,&Corrigan, E.(2007). Emotional constraints on intentional forgetting. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(5), 780–786.
Quinlan, C. K.,&Taylor, T. L.(2014).“I never forget a face,but in your case I’ll be glad to make an exception”:Intentional forgetting of emotional faces. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68(3), 212–221.
Robinson, A. K., Plaut, D. C.,&Behrmann, M.(2017). Word and face processing engage overlapping distributed networks:Evidence from RSVP and EEG investigations. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 146(7), 943–961.
Sahakyan, L.,&Goodmon, L. B.(2007). The influence of directional associations on directed forgetting and interference.Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory&Cognition, 33(6), 1035–1049.
Sahakyan, L., Delaney, P. F., Foster, N. L.,&Abushanab, B.(2013). Chapter four-list-method directed forgetting in cognitive and clinical research:A theoretical and methodologicalreview. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 59, 131–189.
Snodgrass, J. G.,&Corwin, J.(1988). Perceptual identification thresholds for 150 fragmented pictures from the snodgrass and vanderwart picture set. Perceptual and Motor Skills,67 (1), 3–36.
Tolin, D. F., Hamlin, C.,&Foa, E. B.(2002). Directed forgetting in obsessivecompulsive disorder:Replication and extension. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(7),793 –803.
Wessel, I.,&Merckelbach, H.(2006). Forgetting “murder” is not harder than forgetting “circle”:List wise-directed forgetting of emotional words. Cognition and Emotion, 20(1), 129–137.
Woodward, A. E.,&Bjork, R. A.(1971). Forgetting and remembering in free recall:Intentional and unintentional.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 89(1), 109–116.
Yang, W. J., Yang, J. H., Xiao, X.,&Zhang, Q. L.(2012).Directed forgetting of negative memories and its mechanisms. Psychological Science, 35(1), 50–55.[杨文静,杨金华,肖宵,张庆林.(2012).负性情绪材料的定向遗忘及心理机制.心理科学, 35(1), 50–55.]Sinica
Yang, W. J., Zhang, Q. L., Wu, Z. L.,&Jia, L.(2010).Intentional forgetting of emotional memory. Advances in Psychological Science, 18(6), 871–877.[杨文静,张庆林,伍泽莲,贾磊.(2010).情绪性记忆的主动遗忘.心理科学进展, 18(6), 871–877.]
Yonelinas, A. P.,&Jacoby, L. L.(1995). The relation between remembering and knowing as bases for recognition:Effects of size congruency. Journal of Memory&Language, 34(5),622 –643.
Zacks, R. T., Radvansky, G.,&Hasher, L.(1996). Studies of directed forgetting in older adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory and Cognition, 22(1),143 –156.