论劳动力市场的“性别-母职双重税赋”
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摘要
市场化的深入推进加剧了女性工作-家庭的矛盾冲突,引发了就业率和生育率的同步降低现象。在全面二孩政策背景下,市场经济与家庭支持政策缺场的叠加,可能进一步激化女性就业与育儿间的矛盾。通过"性别-母职双重税赋"分析框架,探求其形成的内在基础,提出该分析框架的9个命题,分解"性别税"和"母职税"独自和共享的作用机制。未来研究需进一步丰富并完善本分析视角,整合调查数据和深度访谈材料,多角度、多层面地对该分析框架加以检视、修正与完善。
The deepening of marketization has intensified the conflict between women's work and their family,which has led to a simultaneous decline in employment and fertility. In the context of the universal two-child policy, The superposition of the market economy and the absence of family support policy may further aggravate the contradiction between female employment and child rearing. According to the analytical framework"gender-motherhood double taxation", this article explores the intrinsic basis of its formation, proposes nine propositions of this analytical framework, and deconstructs the separate and shared function mechanism of"gender tax"and"motherhood tax". Future research needs to further enrich and improve the perspective of this analysis, to integrate survey data and in-depth interview materials, and to review, to modify, and to improve this analytical framework from multiple perspectives and multiple levels.
The deepening of marketization has intensified the conflict between women's work and their family,which has led to a simultaneous decline in employment and fertility. In the context of the universal two-child policy, The superposition of the market economy and the absence of family support policy may further aggravate the contradiction between female employment and child rearing. According to the analytical framework"gender-motherhood double taxation", this article explores the intrinsic basis of its formation, proposes nine propositions of this analytical framework, and deconstructs the separate and shared function mechanism of"gender tax"and"motherhood tax". Future research needs to further enrich and improve the perspective of this analysis, to integrate survey data and in-depth interview materials, and to review, to modify, and to improve this analytical framework from multiple perspectives and multiple levels.
引文
[1] RUDMAN L A, GLICK P. Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women[J]. Journal of social issues, 2001(4):743-762.
[2] NELSON, SOFIA, HILARY LIPS. The motherhood penalty:"sequencing moms"pay a price. n. pag. 2009[EB/OL].[2018-05-01]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherhood_penalty.
[3] CORRELL, S., S. BERNARD,I. PAIK. Getting a job:is there a motherhood penalty?[J]. American journal of sociology, 2007,112(5):1297-1338.
[4] KRICHELI-KATZ T. Choice, discrimination, and the motherhood penalty[J]. Law&society review,2012(3):557-587.
[5] HOOBLER, J., S. WAYNE, G. LEMMON. Bosses’perceptions of family-work conflict and women’s promotability:glass ceiling effects[J]. Academy of management journal, 2009(5):939-957.
[6] MUMBY, DENNIS K. Communication and power in organizations:discourse, ideology, and domination.norwood[M]. NJ:Ablex Pub. Print, 1988.
[7] GREENHAUS JEFFREY H.,NICHOLAS J. BEUTELL. Sources of conflict between work and family roles[J]. The academy of management review, 1985(1):76-88.
[8]曹晋,徐婧,黄傲寒.新媒体、新修辞与转型中国的性别政治、阶级关系:以“绿茶婊”为例[J].新闻大学,2015(2):50-59.
[9]刘利群,张敬婕.“剩女”与盛宴——性别视角下的“剩女”传播现象与媒介传播策略研究[J].妇女研究论丛,2013(5):76-82.
[10]杨慧.女性就业现状及行业与职业分布性别差异[N].中国妇女报,2013-03-05(B02).
[11] CHARLES M. Deciphering sex segregation:vertical and horizontal inequalities in ten national labor markets[J]. Acta sociologica, 2003(4):267-287.
[12] WATTS R. Gendering the story:change in the history of education1[J]. History of education, 2005(3):225-241.
[13]申峥峥,时艳琴,董洁.各国鼓励女性参与科学研究不同阶段的举措分析[J].湖南科技学院学报,2013(6):24-26.
[14]胡雅婷.单位生育负担是歧视女性首因[N].人民日报,2013-12-05(014).
[15]刘丽.“全面二孩”政策下“80后”高知女性家庭与职业选择困境研究——以上海市抽样调查与访谈为例[J].山东女子学院学报,2017(3):49-56.
[16] STAFF J, MORTIMER J T. Explaining the motherhood wage penalty during the early occupational career[J]. Demography, 2012(1):1-21.
[17] SCHECHTER D S,WILLHEIM E. Disturbances of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood[J]. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America,2009(3):665-686.
[18]赖德胜.2015中国劳动力市场发展报告[R].北京:北京师范大学出版社,2016.
[19] WILLIAMS, J. Unbending gender:why family and work conflict and what to do about it[M]. Oxford University Press, 2000.
[20] GILBERT, N. A mother's work[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press,2008.
[21]杨菊华.全面两孩政策效应及实施对策建议[N].中国人口报,2015-11-23(003).
[22] FRIEDMAN, DEBRA, MICHAEL HECHTER,SATOSHI KANAZAWA. A theory of the value of children[J]. Demography, 1994(3):375-401.
(1)“motherhood penalty”是近年西方社会学研究中的“热词”,国内学者将之译为“生育惩罚”或“生育代价”,但笔者认为,无论是从字面上还是从其蕴含上,翻译为“母职惩罚”似更为恰当。因此,本文在引用他人的文献时,沿用他人的用法;在表达作者的观点时,使用“母职惩罚”。
(1)本文借用经济学中“赋税”的概念,以及“双重赋税”分析框架的原因,在文章第二部分会详细介绍;“母职”这一概念的意涵甚广,包含孕育、生育(生产)、哺育和养育全过程,故将“性别-母职双重赋税”简称为“性别-母职重税”也较合理。
(2)中国人普婚普育,且生育主要发生在婚姻之内,故粗略地看,婚姻属性可与母职一起考虑,故本文不对它们做严格的区分。
(1)“第二次人口转变”理论是在20世纪80年代后,欧洲一些国家总和生育率持续下降,经典人口转变理论无法解释的背景下,欧洲学者提出的阐释。
(2)国际经验表明,重视家庭、推行家庭友好政策或生育支持政策,可在一定程度上降低“性别-母职重税”(尤其是“母职税”)。许多低生育国家在儿童早期照料与教育、带薪和无薪家庭照顾休假、家庭福利津贴与税收减免政策、家庭友好型工作安排等方面做出了具体规定,保证员工能协调家庭责任和社会工作。这些政策增加了婴幼儿养育社会支持的可及性和可得性,既消减了生育对女性职业发展的束缚,也缓解了工作对家庭的制约,由此带来“性别平等红利”。
(1)西方社会从消费的角度,早已意识到女性比男性缴纳更高的消费税。虽然笔者尚未看到这方面的学术研究,但新闻报道并不鲜见。女性虽然在收入上低于男性,但由于价格上的差异,却在日用品消费上要缴纳高于男性同类用品的税赋,我们不妨称之为“消费性别税”。
(1)资料来源于凤凰网资讯,原标题:全国妇联日前发布的调查报告[EB/OL].[2018-09-01].http://news.ifeng.com/a/20170104/50522649_0.shtml
[2] NELSON, SOFIA, HILARY LIPS. The motherhood penalty:"sequencing moms"pay a price. n. pag. 2009[EB/OL].[2018-05-01]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherhood_penalty.
[3] CORRELL, S., S. BERNARD,I. PAIK. Getting a job:is there a motherhood penalty?[J]. American journal of sociology, 2007,112(5):1297-1338.
[4] KRICHELI-KATZ T. Choice, discrimination, and the motherhood penalty[J]. Law&society review,2012(3):557-587.
[5] HOOBLER, J., S. WAYNE, G. LEMMON. Bosses’perceptions of family-work conflict and women’s promotability:glass ceiling effects[J]. Academy of management journal, 2009(5):939-957.
[6] MUMBY, DENNIS K. Communication and power in organizations:discourse, ideology, and domination.norwood[M]. NJ:Ablex Pub. Print, 1988.
[7] GREENHAUS JEFFREY H.,NICHOLAS J. BEUTELL. Sources of conflict between work and family roles[J]. The academy of management review, 1985(1):76-88.
[8]曹晋,徐婧,黄傲寒.新媒体、新修辞与转型中国的性别政治、阶级关系:以“绿茶婊”为例[J].新闻大学,2015(2):50-59.
[9]刘利群,张敬婕.“剩女”与盛宴——性别视角下的“剩女”传播现象与媒介传播策略研究[J].妇女研究论丛,2013(5):76-82.
[10]杨慧.女性就业现状及行业与职业分布性别差异[N].中国妇女报,2013-03-05(B02).
[11] CHARLES M. Deciphering sex segregation:vertical and horizontal inequalities in ten national labor markets[J]. Acta sociologica, 2003(4):267-287.
[12] WATTS R. Gendering the story:change in the history of education1[J]. History of education, 2005(3):225-241.
[13]申峥峥,时艳琴,董洁.各国鼓励女性参与科学研究不同阶段的举措分析[J].湖南科技学院学报,2013(6):24-26.
[14]胡雅婷.单位生育负担是歧视女性首因[N].人民日报,2013-12-05(014).
[15]刘丽.“全面二孩”政策下“80后”高知女性家庭与职业选择困境研究——以上海市抽样调查与访谈为例[J].山东女子学院学报,2017(3):49-56.
[16] STAFF J, MORTIMER J T. Explaining the motherhood wage penalty during the early occupational career[J]. Demography, 2012(1):1-21.
[17] SCHECHTER D S,WILLHEIM E. Disturbances of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood[J]. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America,2009(3):665-686.
[18]赖德胜.2015中国劳动力市场发展报告[R].北京:北京师范大学出版社,2016.
[19] WILLIAMS, J. Unbending gender:why family and work conflict and what to do about it[M]. Oxford University Press, 2000.
[20] GILBERT, N. A mother's work[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press,2008.
[21]杨菊华.全面两孩政策效应及实施对策建议[N].中国人口报,2015-11-23(003).
[22] FRIEDMAN, DEBRA, MICHAEL HECHTER,SATOSHI KANAZAWA. A theory of the value of children[J]. Demography, 1994(3):375-401.
(1)“motherhood penalty”是近年西方社会学研究中的“热词”,国内学者将之译为“生育惩罚”或“生育代价”,但笔者认为,无论是从字面上还是从其蕴含上,翻译为“母职惩罚”似更为恰当。因此,本文在引用他人的文献时,沿用他人的用法;在表达作者的观点时,使用“母职惩罚”。
(1)本文借用经济学中“赋税”的概念,以及“双重赋税”分析框架的原因,在文章第二部分会详细介绍;“母职”这一概念的意涵甚广,包含孕育、生育(生产)、哺育和养育全过程,故将“性别-母职双重赋税”简称为“性别-母职重税”也较合理。
(2)中国人普婚普育,且生育主要发生在婚姻之内,故粗略地看,婚姻属性可与母职一起考虑,故本文不对它们做严格的区分。
(1)“第二次人口转变”理论是在20世纪80年代后,欧洲一些国家总和生育率持续下降,经典人口转变理论无法解释的背景下,欧洲学者提出的阐释。
(2)国际经验表明,重视家庭、推行家庭友好政策或生育支持政策,可在一定程度上降低“性别-母职重税”(尤其是“母职税”)。许多低生育国家在儿童早期照料与教育、带薪和无薪家庭照顾休假、家庭福利津贴与税收减免政策、家庭友好型工作安排等方面做出了具体规定,保证员工能协调家庭责任和社会工作。这些政策增加了婴幼儿养育社会支持的可及性和可得性,既消减了生育对女性职业发展的束缚,也缓解了工作对家庭的制约,由此带来“性别平等红利”。
(1)西方社会从消费的角度,早已意识到女性比男性缴纳更高的消费税。虽然笔者尚未看到这方面的学术研究,但新闻报道并不鲜见。女性虽然在收入上低于男性,但由于价格上的差异,却在日用品消费上要缴纳高于男性同类用品的税赋,我们不妨称之为“消费性别税”。
(1)资料来源于凤凰网资讯,原标题:全国妇联日前发布的调查报告[EB/OL].[2018-09-01].http://news.ifeng.com/a/20170104/50522649_0.shtml