中东欧国家少数民族语言教育政策取向比较——以捷克、斯洛伐克和匈牙利为例
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摘要
捷克、斯洛伐克和匈牙利等中东欧转型国家基于国族建构的核心需求,结合国内民族结构和国际组织要求等因素,为少数民族语言教育政策赋予了不同的功能定位,代表了欧洲民族国家政府的3种主要管理倾向:捷克采取外松内紧的隐性融合政策,斯洛伐克采取全面收紧的显性抑制政策,而匈牙利高调支持少数民族语言的自治。3国管理策略的不同导致各自在民族语言保护数量、教育门槛和实施方式等方面的具体措施和实施效果存在较大差异。各国仅有少量民族语言能够应用于完整的基础教育体系,其余大都处于不受重视的边缘地位,罗姆人的语言甚至受到系统性的歧视。未来一段时间,中东欧国家将继续在公共话语中支持多语主义的价值取向,但也会允许单语主义以隐性的方式存在于具体政策之中,并有可能形成跨国协调管理机制。中东欧国家的案例一方面为我国完善本国政策提供具体技术参照,另一方面也显示我国应立足自身需求设计符合本国社会条件的民族语言教育政策。
Central and Eastern European transition countries like the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary usually adopt differentiated policies for education of ethnic minority languages based on some common factors including the national identity construction, domestic ethnic structure and international expectations. To cater for these diverse needs, the three above-mentioned countries adopt respective policy orientations, that is, the Czech Republic prefers covert integration, while Slovakia inclines to aggressive suppression, and Hungary empowers the autonomy of minority languages. The orientations are supported by concrete laws and regulations that cover different numbers of minority language, stipulate different thresholds for mother tongue education, implement different forms of education, and have let to different results. Generally, only a small number of minority languages can be used throughout the education system, while most of them are marginalized or simply neglected, yet still some suffer systemic discrimination in the school system like Roma language. In the coming future, Central and Eastern European countries would continue to support multilingualism in public discourse, but will also allow room for monolingualism in actual policies. And it is possible to form a transitional coordination management mechanism for minority language education. These cases can not only provide specific technical references for China to improve domestic policy, but also confirm that China should make ethnic language education policy based on its own political needs and social conditions.
Central and Eastern European transition countries like the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary usually adopt differentiated policies for education of ethnic minority languages based on some common factors including the national identity construction, domestic ethnic structure and international expectations. To cater for these diverse needs, the three above-mentioned countries adopt respective policy orientations, that is, the Czech Republic prefers covert integration, while Slovakia inclines to aggressive suppression, and Hungary empowers the autonomy of minority languages. The orientations are supported by concrete laws and regulations that cover different numbers of minority language, stipulate different thresholds for mother tongue education, implement different forms of education, and have let to different results. Generally, only a small number of minority languages can be used throughout the education system, while most of them are marginalized or simply neglected, yet still some suffer systemic discrimination in the school system like Roma language. In the coming future, Central and Eastern European countries would continue to support multilingualism in public discourse, but will also allow room for monolingualism in actual policies. And it is possible to form a transitional coordination management mechanism for minority language education. These cases can not only provide specific technical references for China to improve domestic policy, but also confirm that China should make ethnic language education policy based on its own political needs and social conditions.
引文
[1] 朱晓中. 东欧民族主义的复兴及其原因[J]. 东欧中亚研究,1992, (4): 21-27.
[2] Daftary Farimah, Grin Fran?ois. Nation-Building, Ethinicity and Language Politics in Transition Countries [C]. Budapest: Open Society Institute, 2003.
[3] McIntosh, Mary E., Iver, Martha Abele Mac, Abele, Daniel G, Nolle, David B. Minority Rights and Majority Rule: Ethnic Tolerance in Romania and Bulgaria [J]. Social Forces, 1995, (3): 939-967.
[4] Phillipson Robert. Rights to Language: Equity, Power, and Education [C]. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000.
[5] Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove. [M]. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000.
[6] Paulston Christina Bratt, Peckham Donald. Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe [C]. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1998.
[7] Blommaert Jan, Verschueren Jef. The Role of Language in European Nationalist Ideologies [A]. Language Ideologies: Practice and Theory [C]. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998: 189-210.
[8] Bowring Bill. European Minority Protection: The Past and Future of a “Major Historical Achievement”[J]. International Journal on Minority & Group Rights, 2008, (2/3): 413-425.
[9] Romaine Suzanne. Politics and policies of promoting multilingualism in the European Union [J]. Language Policy, 2013, (2): 115-137.
[10] 何山华. 中欧三国:国家转型、语言权利与小族语言生存[M]. 北京:商务印书馆,2018.
[11] Sokolová Gabriela Hernova. Opava: Tilia, 1997: 84.
[12] Neustupny Jirí V, Nekvapil Jirrí. Language Management in the Czech Republic [J]. Current Issues in Language Planning, 2003, (3-4): 181-366.
[13] Hnízdo Borivoj. Changing Roles of Minority Languages in the Czech Republic [J]. Annual of Language & Politics & Politics of Identity, 2011, 2-22.
[14] Votruba Martin. Linguistic Minorities in Slovakia [A]. Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe [C]. London: Multilingual Matters, 1998: 255-274.
[15] Buzassyovaa Klara. Slovencina ako Stredoeuropsky Jazyk [A]. Slovencina na Konci 20. Storocia, jej Normy a Perspektivy [C]. Bratislava: Veda, 1997: 69-78.
[16] Bacova Anna. First Use of Romani in Government Documents in Slovakia [J]. Asian and African Studies, 2010, (2): 331-343.
[17] Dubiel-Dmytryszyn Sebastian. The Rusyns of Slovakia [J]. Our Europe, 2012, (1): 39-44.
[18] Medgyes Péter, Miklósy Katalin. The Language Situation in Hungary [J]. Current Issues in Language Planning, 2000, (2): 148-242.
[19] Paikert Geza C. Hungary’ s National Minority Policies: 1920–1945 [J]. American Slavic and East European Review, 1953, (2): 201-209.
[20] Fenyvesia, Anna. Linguistic Minorities in Hungary [A]. Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe [C]. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1998: 135-159.
[21] Paulik Antal & Solymosi Judit. Language Policy in Hungary 2004. http://www.gencat.cat/llengua/noves/noves/hm04primavera-estiu/docs/paulik.pdf
[22] Committee of Experts. Application of the Charter in the Czech Republic: 2nd monitoring cycle[R]. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. 2013: 15.(说明:欧洲委员会对公众提供《欧洲区域或少数族群语言保护宪章》和《欧洲保护少数民族权利框架公约》签约国的国家执行报告和专家评估报告,下载页面分别为http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/minlang/Report/default_en.asp和http://www.coe.int/en/web/minorities/country-specific-monitoring。本文所引用的报告类数据均来自上述两个页面,下文不再一一标明来源,而是根据欧洲委员会引用惯例,使用"X国第X轮X报告(X年),第X页"的格式。)
[23] Baldauf Richard B. Introduction–Language Planning: Where Have We Been? Where Might We Be Going? [J]. Revista Brasileira de Linguistica Aplicada, 2012, (2): 233-248.
[24] 何山华. 语言管理理论:源流与发展[J]. 语言规划学研究,2016,(1): 32-45.
[25] Nekvapil Jiri. Language Management Theory as one approach in Language Policy and Planning [J]. Current Issues in Language Planning, 2016, (1): 11-22.
[26] Neustupn Jií V. Problems in Australian-Japanese Contact Situations [A]. Cross-Cultural Encounters: Communication and Mis-Communication [C]. Melbourne: River Seine, 1985: 161-170.
[27] Jernudd Bj?rn H, Neustupn Jií V. Language Planning: for Whom? [A]. Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Language Planning [C]. Quebec: Les Press de L Universite Laval, 1987: 69-84.
[28] Daftary Farimah, Gal Kinga. The New Slovak Language Law: Internal or External Politics? [A]. ECMI Working Papers [C]. Flensburg: European Center for Minority Issues, 2000: 1-62.
[32] Bartha Csilla, Borbély Anna. Diemensions of Linguistic Otherness: Propects of Minority Language Maintenance in Hungary [J]. Language Policy, 2006, (5): 335-363.
[30] Gramma Gizella Szabómihály. Language Policy and Language Rights in Slovakia[M]. Catalunya: CIEMEN, 2006.
[31] Stockton Julianna Connelly. Hungary, Slovakia, and Romania: International Relations Examined Through Minority Language Education [J]. Mathematics Faculty Publications, 2009, (7): 50-58.
[32] Deets Stephen. Reconsidering East European Minority Policy: Liberal Theory and European Norms [J]. East European Politics & Societies, 2002, (1): 30-53.
[33] Paikert Geza C. Hungary’s National Minority Policies: 1920—1945 [J]. American Slavicand East European Review, 1953, (2): 201-209.
[34] Ricento Thomas. An Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method [C]. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006.
[35] Dovalil Vit. Ideological Positioning in Legal Discourses on European Multilingualism: Equality of Languages as an Ideology and a Challenge [A]. Ideological Conceptualizations of Language [C]. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2013: 147-170.
[36] Els Theo van. Multilingualism in the European Union [J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2005, (3): 263-281.
[37] Gardner-Chloros, Penelope. Vernacular Literacy in New Vernacular Settings in Europe [A]. Vernacular Literacy — A Re-evaluation [C]. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997: 189-221.
[38] Blackledge, Adrian. Monolingual Ideologies in Multilingual States: Language, Hegemony and Social Justice in Western Liberal Democracies [J]. Estudios de Sociolinguistica, 2000, (2): 25-45.
[39] Liddicoat Anthony J, Curnow Timothy Jowan. Students' Home Languages and the Struggle for Space in the Curriculum [J]. International Journal of Multilingualism, 2014, (3): 273-288.
[40] 《里斯本条约》(2007)第三条[EB/OL]见欧盟网站:https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12007L%2FTXT.
[41] Fishman Joshua A. Advances in Language Planning [C]. The Hague: Mounton Publishers, 1974.
(1)斯洛伐克第三轮《宪章》专家委员会报告(2013),第10页。
(2)匈牙利第一轮《宪章》专家委员会报告(2001),第9页。
(3)本小节关于捷克、斯洛伐克和匈牙利的民族人口数据来自三国2001年人口普查结果。2011年普查中三国均有大量人群没有填写“民族”和“母语”项,导致数据可比性下降,本文未予采用。数据详见三国国家统计局网站人口普查部分。
(4)斯洛伐克第三轮《宪章》专家委员会报告(2013),第10页。
(5)斯洛伐克第一轮《宪章》国家报告(2003),第15-16页。
(6)捷克第二轮《欧洲保护少数民族框架公约》国家报告(2004),第41-42页。
(7)捷克第三轮《宪章》国家报告(2014),第36-37页。
(8)参见匈牙利外交部网站,《匈牙利数据》(2000),网址:https://www.mfa.gov.hu/。
(9)斯洛伐克第四轮《宪章》国家报告(2015),第25页。
(10)匈牙利第七轮《宪章》国家报告(2018),第111-113页。
(11)斯洛伐克第三轮《宪章》国家报告(2012),第60页。
(12)匈牙利第六轮《宪章》国家报告(2015),第12页。
(13)匈牙利第一轮《宪章》专家委员会报告(2001),第9页。
[2] Daftary Farimah, Grin Fran?ois. Nation-Building, Ethinicity and Language Politics in Transition Countries [C]. Budapest: Open Society Institute, 2003.
[3] McIntosh, Mary E., Iver, Martha Abele Mac, Abele, Daniel G, Nolle, David B. Minority Rights and Majority Rule: Ethnic Tolerance in Romania and Bulgaria [J]. Social Forces, 1995, (3): 939-967.
[4] Phillipson Robert. Rights to Language: Equity, Power, and Education [C]. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000.
[5] Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove. [M]. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000.
[6] Paulston Christina Bratt, Peckham Donald. Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe [C]. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1998.
[7] Blommaert Jan, Verschueren Jef. The Role of Language in European Nationalist Ideologies [A]. Language Ideologies: Practice and Theory [C]. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998: 189-210.
[8] Bowring Bill. European Minority Protection: The Past and Future of a “Major Historical Achievement”[J]. International Journal on Minority & Group Rights, 2008, (2/3): 413-425.
[9] Romaine Suzanne. Politics and policies of promoting multilingualism in the European Union [J]. Language Policy, 2013, (2): 115-137.
[10] 何山华. 中欧三国:国家转型、语言权利与小族语言生存[M]. 北京:商务印书馆,2018.
[11] Sokolová Gabriela Hernova. Opava: Tilia, 1997: 84.
[12] Neustupny Jirí V, Nekvapil Jirrí. Language Management in the Czech Republic [J]. Current Issues in Language Planning, 2003, (3-4): 181-366.
[13] Hnízdo Borivoj. Changing Roles of Minority Languages in the Czech Republic [J]. Annual of Language & Politics & Politics of Identity, 2011, 2-22.
[14] Votruba Martin. Linguistic Minorities in Slovakia [A]. Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe [C]. London: Multilingual Matters, 1998: 255-274.
[15] Buzassyovaa Klara. Slovencina ako Stredoeuropsky Jazyk [A]. Slovencina na Konci 20. Storocia, jej Normy a Perspektivy [C]. Bratislava: Veda, 1997: 69-78.
[16] Bacova Anna. First Use of Romani in Government Documents in Slovakia [J]. Asian and African Studies, 2010, (2): 331-343.
[17] Dubiel-Dmytryszyn Sebastian. The Rusyns of Slovakia [J]. Our Europe, 2012, (1): 39-44.
[18] Medgyes Péter, Miklósy Katalin. The Language Situation in Hungary [J]. Current Issues in Language Planning, 2000, (2): 148-242.
[19] Paikert Geza C. Hungary’ s National Minority Policies: 1920–1945 [J]. American Slavic and East European Review, 1953, (2): 201-209.
[20] Fenyvesia, Anna. Linguistic Minorities in Hungary [A]. Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe [C]. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1998: 135-159.
[21] Paulik Antal & Solymosi Judit. Language Policy in Hungary 2004. http://www.gencat.cat/llengua/noves/noves/hm04primavera-estiu/docs/paulik.pdf
[22] Committee of Experts. Application of the Charter in the Czech Republic: 2nd monitoring cycle[R]. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. 2013: 15.(说明:欧洲委员会对公众提供《欧洲区域或少数族群语言保护宪章》和《欧洲保护少数民族权利框架公约》签约国的国家执行报告和专家评估报告,下载页面分别为http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/minlang/Report/default_en.asp和http://www.coe.int/en/web/minorities/country-specific-monitoring。本文所引用的报告类数据均来自上述两个页面,下文不再一一标明来源,而是根据欧洲委员会引用惯例,使用"X国第X轮X报告(X年),第X页"的格式。)
[23] Baldauf Richard B. Introduction–Language Planning: Where Have We Been? Where Might We Be Going? [J]. Revista Brasileira de Linguistica Aplicada, 2012, (2): 233-248.
[24] 何山华. 语言管理理论:源流与发展[J]. 语言规划学研究,2016,(1): 32-45.
[25] Nekvapil Jiri. Language Management Theory as one approach in Language Policy and Planning [J]. Current Issues in Language Planning, 2016, (1): 11-22.
[26] Neustupn Jií V. Problems in Australian-Japanese Contact Situations [A]. Cross-Cultural Encounters: Communication and Mis-Communication [C]. Melbourne: River Seine, 1985: 161-170.
[27] Jernudd Bj?rn H, Neustupn Jií V. Language Planning: for Whom? [A]. Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Language Planning [C]. Quebec: Les Press de L Universite Laval, 1987: 69-84.
[28] Daftary Farimah, Gal Kinga. The New Slovak Language Law: Internal or External Politics? [A]. ECMI Working Papers [C]. Flensburg: European Center for Minority Issues, 2000: 1-62.
[32] Bartha Csilla, Borbély Anna. Diemensions of Linguistic Otherness: Propects of Minority Language Maintenance in Hungary [J]. Language Policy, 2006, (5): 335-363.
[30] Gramma Gizella Szabómihály. Language Policy and Language Rights in Slovakia[M]. Catalunya: CIEMEN, 2006.
[31] Stockton Julianna Connelly. Hungary, Slovakia, and Romania: International Relations Examined Through Minority Language Education [J]. Mathematics Faculty Publications, 2009, (7): 50-58.
[32] Deets Stephen. Reconsidering East European Minority Policy: Liberal Theory and European Norms [J]. East European Politics & Societies, 2002, (1): 30-53.
[33] Paikert Geza C. Hungary’s National Minority Policies: 1920—1945 [J]. American Slavicand East European Review, 1953, (2): 201-209.
[34] Ricento Thomas. An Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method [C]. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006.
[35] Dovalil Vit. Ideological Positioning in Legal Discourses on European Multilingualism: Equality of Languages as an Ideology and a Challenge [A]. Ideological Conceptualizations of Language [C]. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2013: 147-170.
[36] Els Theo van. Multilingualism in the European Union [J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2005, (3): 263-281.
[37] Gardner-Chloros, Penelope. Vernacular Literacy in New Vernacular Settings in Europe [A]. Vernacular Literacy — A Re-evaluation [C]. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997: 189-221.
[38] Blackledge, Adrian. Monolingual Ideologies in Multilingual States: Language, Hegemony and Social Justice in Western Liberal Democracies [J]. Estudios de Sociolinguistica, 2000, (2): 25-45.
[39] Liddicoat Anthony J, Curnow Timothy Jowan. Students' Home Languages and the Struggle for Space in the Curriculum [J]. International Journal of Multilingualism, 2014, (3): 273-288.
[40] 《里斯本条约》(2007)第三条[EB/OL]见欧盟网站:https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12007L%2FTXT.
[41] Fishman Joshua A. Advances in Language Planning [C]. The Hague: Mounton Publishers, 1974.
(1)斯洛伐克第三轮《宪章》专家委员会报告(2013),第10页。
(2)匈牙利第一轮《宪章》专家委员会报告(2001),第9页。
(3)本小节关于捷克、斯洛伐克和匈牙利的民族人口数据来自三国2001年人口普查结果。2011年普查中三国均有大量人群没有填写“民族”和“母语”项,导致数据可比性下降,本文未予采用。数据详见三国国家统计局网站人口普查部分。
(4)斯洛伐克第三轮《宪章》专家委员会报告(2013),第10页。
(5)斯洛伐克第一轮《宪章》国家报告(2003),第15-16页。
(6)捷克第二轮《欧洲保护少数民族框架公约》国家报告(2004),第41-42页。
(7)捷克第三轮《宪章》国家报告(2014),第36-37页。
(8)参见匈牙利外交部网站,《匈牙利数据》(2000),网址:https://www.mfa.gov.hu/。
(9)斯洛伐克第四轮《宪章》国家报告(2015),第25页。
(10)匈牙利第七轮《宪章》国家报告(2018),第111-113页。
(11)斯洛伐克第三轮《宪章》国家报告(2012),第60页。
(12)匈牙利第六轮《宪章》国家报告(2015),第12页。
(13)匈牙利第一轮《宪章》专家委员会报告(2001),第9页。