人工林与天然林破碎化过程差异对比——以美国华盛顿州和密西西比州为例
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摘要
森林损失和破碎化一直是国际社会普遍关注的重大环境问题之一。根据Forman景观变化包括穿孔、分割、破碎化、收缩和消失5种空间过程的理论,利用ArcGIS Modeler建立森林破碎化过程模型用以明确描述森林景观破碎化的空间过程和生态进程。基于NLCD2001、2006、2011 3期数据,以美国华盛顿州和密西西比州为研究区,利用森林破碎化过程模型,将森林损失斑块分为4种破碎化过程(分割类型因其线状特征被归入破碎化类型),对比分析天然林和人工林的破碎化过程在时空上的差异性。研究表明天然林破碎化斑块多分布于城市/森林、耕地/森林、以及灌木/森林的交界处,而人工林破碎化斑块分布格局较为零散;天然林中破碎化斑块和收缩斑块大多发生在上阶段收缩、破碎化以及穿孔斑块的边缘,而人工林中4种空间过程的承接关系不像天然林那么明显,但两者整体上都呈现相似的"收缩-消失-穿孔/破碎化"变化规律,主要表现为收缩类型占主导然后慢慢消退,穿孔和破碎化逐渐增多占据新的主导。
Forest loss and fragmentation have long been one of the most vital concerns of the international community.Landscape fragmentation includes five different spatially explicit processes:perforation,dissection,subdivision,shrinkage,and attrition. Following this theory,a forest fragmentation process model that can detect these spatially explicit processes,as well as the ecological consequences of forest landscape fragmentation,was developed using Arc GIS Modeler. Using the National Land Cover Database(years 2001,2006,and 2011),the forest fragmentation process model was applied to Washington and Mississippi in the USA. Deforested patches were quantified and categorized into one of four fragmentation processes,by merging the dissection spatial process into the subdivision spatial process(because of its principal linear feature). Furthermore,the spatio-temporal differences in fragmentation pattern between natural forests and plantations were compared. For natural forests,forest fragmentation mainly occurred in the urban/forest,cultivated/forest,and shrubland /forest interfaces,whereas the pattern of deforested plantation patches dispersed sparsely and irregularly throughout the region. The subdivision and shrinkage patches in natural forests usually followed the perforation,subdivision,and shrinkage patches of the previous period. In contrast,for the plantations,the spatial transition relationships of the four fragmentation processes were not as apparent as for the natural forests. Nonetheless,for both natural forests and plantations,the overall temporal fragmentation pattern tended to have a similar "shrinkage-attrition-perforation/subdivision " tendency. This tendency was characterized by an early shrinkage dominance,followed by its gradual disappearance. Furthermore,perforation and subdivision components increased gradually,and a new dominance was established accordingly.
Forest loss and fragmentation have long been one of the most vital concerns of the international community.Landscape fragmentation includes five different spatially explicit processes:perforation,dissection,subdivision,shrinkage,and attrition. Following this theory,a forest fragmentation process model that can detect these spatially explicit processes,as well as the ecological consequences of forest landscape fragmentation,was developed using Arc GIS Modeler. Using the National Land Cover Database(years 2001,2006,and 2011),the forest fragmentation process model was applied to Washington and Mississippi in the USA. Deforested patches were quantified and categorized into one of four fragmentation processes,by merging the dissection spatial process into the subdivision spatial process(because of its principal linear feature). Furthermore,the spatio-temporal differences in fragmentation pattern between natural forests and plantations were compared. For natural forests,forest fragmentation mainly occurred in the urban/forest,cultivated/forest,and shrubland /forest interfaces,whereas the pattern of deforested plantation patches dispersed sparsely and irregularly throughout the region. The subdivision and shrinkage patches in natural forests usually followed the perforation,subdivision,and shrinkage patches of the previous period. In contrast,for the plantations,the spatial transition relationships of the four fragmentation processes were not as apparent as for the natural forests. Nonetheless,for both natural forests and plantations,the overall temporal fragmentation pattern tended to have a similar "shrinkage-attrition-perforation/subdivision " tendency. This tendency was characterized by an early shrinkage dominance,followed by its gradual disappearance. Furthermore,perforation and subdivision components increased gradually,and a new dominance was established accordingly.
引文
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[14]杨玉盛,陈光水,林鹏,黄荣珍,陈银秀,何宗明.格氏栲天然林与人工林细根生物量、季节动态及净生产力.生态学报,2003,23(9):1719-1730.
[15]Ruiz-Jaen M C,Potvin C.Can we predict carbon stocks in tropical ecosystems from tree diversity?Comparing species and functional diversity in a plantation and a natural forest.New Phytologist,2011,189(4):978-987.
[16]陈利顶,刘洋,吕一河,冯晓明,傅伯杰.景观生态学中的格局分析:现状、困境与未来.生态学报,2008,28(11):5521-5531.
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[19]Vogt P,Riitters K H,Estreguil C,Kozak J,Wade T G,Wickham J D.Mapping spatial patterns with morphological image processing.Landscape Ecology,2007,22(2):171-177.
[20]Li S J,Bo Y.Introducing a new method for assessing spatially explicit processes of landscape fragmentation.Ecological Indicators,2015,56:116-124.
[21]黄坤.美国林业管理模式对我国林业发展的五大启示.绿色中国,2012,(8):58-61.
[22]刘贵森,倪薇,王燚,倪柏春,于春友,张莹.对人工林非森林问题的探讨.林业勘查设计,2011,(2):11-13.
[23]Littell J S,Oneil E E,Mckenzie D,Hicke J A,Lutz J A,Norheim R A,Elsner M M.Forest ecosystems,disturbance,and climatic change in Washington State,USA.Climatic Change,2010,102(1/2):129-158.
[24]Fickle J E.Mississippi Forests and Forestry.Oxford:University Press of Mississippi,2001:1-347.
[25]Dahal R P,Munn I A,Henderson J E.Forestry in Mississippi:The impact of the forest products industry on the Missippi economy:An inputoutput analysis.Forest and Wildlife Research Center,Mississippi State University,2013:1-22.
[26]Wickham J D,Stehman S V,Fry J A,Smith J H,Homer C G.Thematic accuracy of the NLCD 2001 land cover for the conterminous United States.Remote Sensing of Environment,2010,114(6):1286-1296.
[27]Wickham J D,Stehman S V,Gass L,Dewitz J,Fry J A,Wade J G.Accuracy assessment of NLCD 2006 land cover and impervious surface.Remote Sensing of Environment,2013,130:294-304.
[28]Homer C G,Dewitz J A,Yang L M,Jin S M,Danielson P,Xian G,Coulston J,Herold N D,Wickham J D,Megown K.Completion of the 2011National Land Cover Database for the conterminous United States-Representing a decade of land cover change information.Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing,2015,81(5):345-354.
[29]肖笃宁,李秀珍,高峻,常禹,李团胜.景观生态学.北京:科学出版社,2003:1-224.
[30]谭文雄,刘碧云,陈富强.美国林业可持续发展研究借鉴的文献综述.世界林业研究,2008,21(特刊):16-20.
[31]Bradley G,Erickson A,Robbins A,Smith G,Malone L,Rogers L,Connor M.Forest Land Conversion in Washington State//The Future of Washington's Forests and Forestry Industries.Seattle,WA:University of Washington School of Forest Resources,2007:236-302.
[32]Zhang D W,Polyakov M.The geographical distribution of plantation forests and land resources potentially available for pine plantations in the U.S.South.Biomass and Bioenergy,2010,34(12):1643-1654.
[33]Jaeger J A G.Landscape division,splitting index,and effective mesh size:new measures of landscape fragmentation.Landscape Ecology,2000,15(2):115-130.
[34]Bogaert J,Ceulemans R,Salvador-Van Eysenrode D.Decision tree algorithm for detection of spatial processes in landscape transformation.Environmental Management,2004,33(1):62-73.
[2]Lord J M,Norton D A.Scale and the spatial concept of fragmentation.Conservation Biology,1990,4(2):197-202.
[3]Fuller D O.Forest fragmentation in Loudoun County,Virginia,USA evaluated with multitemporal Landsat imagery.Landscape Ecology,2001,16(7):627-642.
[4]刘建锋,肖文发,江泽平,冯霞,李秀英.景观破碎化对生物多样性的影响.林业科学研究,2005,18(2):222-226.
[5]Li H B,Reynolds J F.A new contagion index to quantify spatial patterns of landscapes.Landscape Ecology,1993,8(3):155-162.
[6]Butler B J,Swenson J J,Alig R J.Forest fragmentation in the Pacific Northwest:quantification and correlations.Forest Ecology and Management,2004,189(1/3):363-373.
[7]Forman R T T.Land Mosaics:The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1995:1-656.
[8]Gutzwiller K.Applying Landscape Ecology in Biological Conservation.New York:Springer-Verlag,2002:1-545.
[9]李哈滨,伍业刚.景观生态学的数量研究方法.北京:中国科学技术出版社,1992:209-223.
[10]Mc Garigal K,Cushman S,Reagan C.Quantifying Terrestrial Habitat Loss and Fragmentation:A Protocol.Rocky Mountain Region:Golden,CO,USA,2005:1-115.
[11]美国科学认证体系SCS.森林保护计划关于中国森林认证暂行标准.2015.
[12]李丹,陈宏伟,李根前,杨斌,孟梦,史富强.我国天然林与人工林的比较研究.林业调查规划,2011,36(6):59-63.
[13]王健敏,刘娟,陈晓鸣,温庆忠,段兆尧,赖兴会.云南松天然林及人工林群落结构和物种多样性比较.林业科学研究,2010,23(4):515-522.
[14]杨玉盛,陈光水,林鹏,黄荣珍,陈银秀,何宗明.格氏栲天然林与人工林细根生物量、季节动态及净生产力.生态学报,2003,23(9):1719-1730.
[15]Ruiz-Jaen M C,Potvin C.Can we predict carbon stocks in tropical ecosystems from tree diversity?Comparing species and functional diversity in a plantation and a natural forest.New Phytologist,2011,189(4):978-987.
[16]陈利顶,刘洋,吕一河,冯晓明,傅伯杰.景观生态学中的格局分析:现状、困境与未来.生态学报,2008,28(11):5521-5531.
[17]Riitters K H,Wickham J D,O'Neill R V,Jones K B,Smith E R,Coulston J W,Wade T G,Smith J H.Fragmentation of continental United States forests.Ecosystems,2002,5:815-822.
[18]Riitters K H,Wickham J D,Wade T G.An indicator of forest dynamics using a shifting landscape mosaic.Ecological Indicators,2009,9(1):107-117.
[19]Vogt P,Riitters K H,Estreguil C,Kozak J,Wade T G,Wickham J D.Mapping spatial patterns with morphological image processing.Landscape Ecology,2007,22(2):171-177.
[20]Li S J,Bo Y.Introducing a new method for assessing spatially explicit processes of landscape fragmentation.Ecological Indicators,2015,56:116-124.
[21]黄坤.美国林业管理模式对我国林业发展的五大启示.绿色中国,2012,(8):58-61.
[22]刘贵森,倪薇,王燚,倪柏春,于春友,张莹.对人工林非森林问题的探讨.林业勘查设计,2011,(2):11-13.
[23]Littell J S,Oneil E E,Mckenzie D,Hicke J A,Lutz J A,Norheim R A,Elsner M M.Forest ecosystems,disturbance,and climatic change in Washington State,USA.Climatic Change,2010,102(1/2):129-158.
[24]Fickle J E.Mississippi Forests and Forestry.Oxford:University Press of Mississippi,2001:1-347.
[25]Dahal R P,Munn I A,Henderson J E.Forestry in Mississippi:The impact of the forest products industry on the Missippi economy:An inputoutput analysis.Forest and Wildlife Research Center,Mississippi State University,2013:1-22.
[26]Wickham J D,Stehman S V,Fry J A,Smith J H,Homer C G.Thematic accuracy of the NLCD 2001 land cover for the conterminous United States.Remote Sensing of Environment,2010,114(6):1286-1296.
[27]Wickham J D,Stehman S V,Gass L,Dewitz J,Fry J A,Wade J G.Accuracy assessment of NLCD 2006 land cover and impervious surface.Remote Sensing of Environment,2013,130:294-304.
[28]Homer C G,Dewitz J A,Yang L M,Jin S M,Danielson P,Xian G,Coulston J,Herold N D,Wickham J D,Megown K.Completion of the 2011National Land Cover Database for the conterminous United States-Representing a decade of land cover change information.Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing,2015,81(5):345-354.
[29]肖笃宁,李秀珍,高峻,常禹,李团胜.景观生态学.北京:科学出版社,2003:1-224.
[30]谭文雄,刘碧云,陈富强.美国林业可持续发展研究借鉴的文献综述.世界林业研究,2008,21(特刊):16-20.
[31]Bradley G,Erickson A,Robbins A,Smith G,Malone L,Rogers L,Connor M.Forest Land Conversion in Washington State//The Future of Washington's Forests and Forestry Industries.Seattle,WA:University of Washington School of Forest Resources,2007:236-302.
[32]Zhang D W,Polyakov M.The geographical distribution of plantation forests and land resources potentially available for pine plantations in the U.S.South.Biomass and Bioenergy,2010,34(12):1643-1654.
[33]Jaeger J A G.Landscape division,splitting index,and effective mesh size:new measures of landscape fragmentation.Landscape Ecology,2000,15(2):115-130.
[34]Bogaert J,Ceulemans R,Salvador-Van Eysenrode D.Decision tree algorithm for detection of spatial processes in landscape transformation.Environmental Management,2004,33(1):62-73.