自我表征的可塑性:基于橡胶手错觉的研究
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摘要
自我识别是人类自我觉知的行为标记。传统方法认为稳定的自我表征是自我识别的基础。随着对橡胶手错觉及一系列自我表征和自我识别错觉的揭示,这一能让人将外部客体感知为自身一部分的错觉研究使得我们能够以多感官整合的方式来研究自我表征和自我识别。拥有感和自主感被认为是我们进行自我识别的两类基本体验,本文对一系列橡胶手错觉范式研究的系统回顾表明,拥有感和自主感会发生改变,这说明人的自我表征是可变的和可塑的。
Self-recognition is considered as the behavioral marker of self-awareness, because previous studies have showed that only a small selection of primate species possess the ability to recognize their own physical features in a mirror. Sustained self-recognition is regarded by traditional unimodal methods as the foundation for self-other detection tasks, self-other morphing tasks or masked priming tasks. The arising of the rubber hand illusion not only changes the study of self-recognition methodologically, but also suggests that self-representations are malleable. Thus self-recognition should be plastic accordingly. The rubber hand illusion is the experience of an artificial body part as becoming a real body part. A rubber hand is placed in front of participants whose corresponding real hand was hidden from sight. Participants report their experience with the rubber hand as their own body part after the real hand and the visible rubber hand is stroked synchronously for 10 minutes. With various minor or major variations, this illusion is widely used to induce illusions of the sense of ownership and the sense of agency, which are considered as the two basic forms of experience to help us recognize ourselves. This paradigm makes it possible to investigate the intimate relations between the sense of ownership, the sense of agency, selfrepresentation, self-recognition, and different kinds of illusions.Converging evidence for temporal consistency, spatial consistency and feature consistency as three main factors that may affect the ownership illusion has been found. Except for the temporal rule, the exact roles of the other two factors are not entirely clear. Other studies have not found an effect of distance or object. The same situation exists in the studies of the sense of agency. The importance of the congruency between the real action and its feedback has been proved by numerous studies, but there are still some studies showing that participants can perceive agency even in cases of rather large spatiotemporal discrepancies. However, it is non-controversial that the setups of rubber hand illusion can influence people's sense of agency and sense of ownership, and so do "enfacement illusion", "the whole body illusion", as well as "rubber voice illusion" which can affect participants' sense of face ownership, sense of whole body ownership, and sense of voice ownership respectively. In the present paper, we reviewed a series of studies focusing on sense of ownership, sense of agency, as well as self-recognition. These multimodal studies provide enough evidence for one hypothesis that self-representation is plastic, which might be explained by the free-energy principle. According to this principle, the brain always attempts to minimize the amount of surprise, as it may need to update probabilistic representations. In other words, when there is any new information which reveals a discrepancy between a predicated sensory state and the actual sensory state, then probabilistic presentations of ourselves will be changed and updated, which means the representations of the self are malleable. Therefore self-recognition should also be plastic. The free-energy principle gives an optional choice for explaining self-representation and self-recognition, but the current evidence is not sufficient to deny the role of top-down body representation. Further investigations and improvement of the methodology itself are needed in order to test this hypothesis empirically.
Self-recognition is considered as the behavioral marker of self-awareness, because previous studies have showed that only a small selection of primate species possess the ability to recognize their own physical features in a mirror. Sustained self-recognition is regarded by traditional unimodal methods as the foundation for self-other detection tasks, self-other morphing tasks or masked priming tasks. The arising of the rubber hand illusion not only changes the study of self-recognition methodologically, but also suggests that self-representations are malleable. Thus self-recognition should be plastic accordingly. The rubber hand illusion is the experience of an artificial body part as becoming a real body part. A rubber hand is placed in front of participants whose corresponding real hand was hidden from sight. Participants report their experience with the rubber hand as their own body part after the real hand and the visible rubber hand is stroked synchronously for 10 minutes. With various minor or major variations, this illusion is widely used to induce illusions of the sense of ownership and the sense of agency, which are considered as the two basic forms of experience to help us recognize ourselves. This paradigm makes it possible to investigate the intimate relations between the sense of ownership, the sense of agency, selfrepresentation, self-recognition, and different kinds of illusions.Converging evidence for temporal consistency, spatial consistency and feature consistency as three main factors that may affect the ownership illusion has been found. Except for the temporal rule, the exact roles of the other two factors are not entirely clear. Other studies have not found an effect of distance or object. The same situation exists in the studies of the sense of agency. The importance of the congruency between the real action and its feedback has been proved by numerous studies, but there are still some studies showing that participants can perceive agency even in cases of rather large spatiotemporal discrepancies. However, it is non-controversial that the setups of rubber hand illusion can influence people's sense of agency and sense of ownership, and so do "enfacement illusion", "the whole body illusion", as well as "rubber voice illusion" which can affect participants' sense of face ownership, sense of whole body ownership, and sense of voice ownership respectively. In the present paper, we reviewed a series of studies focusing on sense of ownership, sense of agency, as well as self-recognition. These multimodal studies provide enough evidence for one hypothesis that self-representation is plastic, which might be explained by the free-energy principle. According to this principle, the brain always attempts to minimize the amount of surprise, as it may need to update probabilistic representations. In other words, when there is any new information which reveals a discrepancy between a predicated sensory state and the actual sensory state, then probabilistic presentations of ourselves will be changed and updated, which means the representations of the self are malleable. Therefore self-recognition should also be plastic. The free-energy principle gives an optional choice for explaining self-representation and self-recognition, but the current evidence is not sufficient to deny the role of top-down body representation. Further investigations and improvement of the methodology itself are needed in order to test this hypothesis empirically.
引文
Apps,M.A.,&Tsakiris,M.(2014).The free-energy self:A predictive coding account of self-recognition.Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,4185-97.
Armel,K.C.,&Ramachandran,V.S.(2003).Projecting sensations to externa objects:Evidence from skin conductance response.Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B:Biological Sciences,270(1523),1499-1506.
Botvinick,M.,&Cohen,J.(1998).Rubber hands‘feel’touch that eyes see Nature,391(6669),756.
Devue,C.,&Brédart,S.(2011).The neural correlates of visual self-recognition Consciousness and Cognition,20(1),40-51.
Ehrsson,H.H.(2007).The experimental induction of out-of-body experiences Science,317(5841),1048.
Franklin,D.W.,&Wolpert,D.M.(2011).Computational mechanisms o sensorimotor control.Neuron,72(3),425-442.
Friston,K.(2010).The free-energy principle:A unified brain theory?Nature Reviews Neuroscience,11(2),127-138.
Gallagher,S.(2000).Philosophical conceptions of the self:Implications for cognitive science.Trends in Cognitive Sciences,4(1),14-21.
Gallup,G.,Anderson,J.R.,&Platek,S.M.(2003).Self-awareness,socia intelligence,and schizophrenia.In T.Kircher,&A.David(Eds.),The self in neuroscience and psychiatry(pp.147-165).London:Cambridge University Press.
Guterstam,A.,Petkova,V.I.,&Ehrsson,H.H.(2011).The illusion of owning a third arm.PLoS ONE,6(2),e17208.
Heinisch,C.,Dinse,H.R.,Tegenthoff,M.,Juckel,G.,&Brüne,M.(2011).An rT MS study into self-face recognition using video-morphing technique.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,6(4),442-449.
Hohwy,J.,&Paton,B.(2010).Explaining away the body:Experiences o supernaturally caused touch and touch on non-hand objects within the rubber hand illusion.PLoS ONE,5(2),e9416.
Jeannerod,M.(2003).The mechanism of self-recognition in humans.Behavioura Brain Research,142(1-2),1-15.
Kalckert,A.,&Ehrsson,H.H.(2014).The moving rubber hand illusion revisited Comparing movements and visuotactile stimulation to induce illusory ownership.Consciousness and Cognition,26,117-132.
Lloyd,D.M.(2007).Spatial limits on referred touch to an alien limb may reflec boundaries of visuo-tactile peripersonal space surrounding the hand.Brain and Cognition,64(1),104-109.
Ma,K.,&Hommel,B.(2013).The virtual-hand illusion:Effects of impac and threat on perceived ownership and affective resonance.Frontiers in Psychology,4,604.
Pannese,A.,&Hirsch,J.(2011).Self-face enhances processing of immediately preceding invisible faces.Neuropsychologia,49(3),564-573.
Preston,C.,&Newport,R.(2010).Self-denial and the role of intentions in the attribution of agency.Consciousness and Cognition,19(4),986-998.
Shimada,S.,Fukuda,K.,&Hiraki,K.(2009).Rubber hand illusion under delayed visual feedback.PLoS ONE,4(7),e6185.
Tajadura-Jiménez,A.,Grehl,S.,&Tsakiris,M.(2012).The other in me Interpersonal multisensory stimulation changes the mental representation o the self.PLoS ONE,7(7),e40682.
Tsakiris,M.(2010).My body in the brain:a neurocognitive model of bodyownership.Neuropsychologia,48(3),703-712.
Tsakiris,M.,&Haggard,P.(2005).The rubber hand illusion revisited:Visuotactile integration and self-attribution.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,31(1),80-91.
Tsakiris,M.,Prabhu,G.,&Haggard,P.(2006).Having a body versus moving your body:How agency structures body-ownership.Consciousness and Cognition,15,423-432.
van der Hoort,B.,Guterstam,A.,&Ehrsson,H.H.(2011).Being Barbie:The size of one’s own body determines the perceived size of the world.PLoS ONE,6(5),e20195.
Zheng,Z.Z.,Mac Donald,E.N.,Munhall,K.G.,&Johnsrude,I.S.(2011)Perceiving a stranger's voice as being one's own:A‘rubber voice’Illusion?PLoS ONE,6(4),e18655.
Zhang,J.,&Hommel,B.(in press).Body ownership and response to threat Psychological Research.
Zhang,J.,Ma,K.,&Hommel,B.(2015).Is the body image an illusion?The effect of spatial reference frames on perceived body ownership.Frontiers in Psychology,6,1647.
Armel,K.C.,&Ramachandran,V.S.(2003).Projecting sensations to externa objects:Evidence from skin conductance response.Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B:Biological Sciences,270(1523),1499-1506.
Botvinick,M.,&Cohen,J.(1998).Rubber hands‘feel’touch that eyes see Nature,391(6669),756.
Devue,C.,&Brédart,S.(2011).The neural correlates of visual self-recognition Consciousness and Cognition,20(1),40-51.
Ehrsson,H.H.(2007).The experimental induction of out-of-body experiences Science,317(5841),1048.
Franklin,D.W.,&Wolpert,D.M.(2011).Computational mechanisms o sensorimotor control.Neuron,72(3),425-442.
Friston,K.(2010).The free-energy principle:A unified brain theory?Nature Reviews Neuroscience,11(2),127-138.
Gallagher,S.(2000).Philosophical conceptions of the self:Implications for cognitive science.Trends in Cognitive Sciences,4(1),14-21.
Gallup,G.,Anderson,J.R.,&Platek,S.M.(2003).Self-awareness,socia intelligence,and schizophrenia.In T.Kircher,&A.David(Eds.),The self in neuroscience and psychiatry(pp.147-165).London:Cambridge University Press.
Guterstam,A.,Petkova,V.I.,&Ehrsson,H.H.(2011).The illusion of owning a third arm.PLoS ONE,6(2),e17208.
Heinisch,C.,Dinse,H.R.,Tegenthoff,M.,Juckel,G.,&Brüne,M.(2011).An rT MS study into self-face recognition using video-morphing technique.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,6(4),442-449.
Hohwy,J.,&Paton,B.(2010).Explaining away the body:Experiences o supernaturally caused touch and touch on non-hand objects within the rubber hand illusion.PLoS ONE,5(2),e9416.
Jeannerod,M.(2003).The mechanism of self-recognition in humans.Behavioura Brain Research,142(1-2),1-15.
Kalckert,A.,&Ehrsson,H.H.(2014).The moving rubber hand illusion revisited Comparing movements and visuotactile stimulation to induce illusory ownership.Consciousness and Cognition,26,117-132.
Lloyd,D.M.(2007).Spatial limits on referred touch to an alien limb may reflec boundaries of visuo-tactile peripersonal space surrounding the hand.Brain and Cognition,64(1),104-109.
Ma,K.,&Hommel,B.(2013).The virtual-hand illusion:Effects of impac and threat on perceived ownership and affective resonance.Frontiers in Psychology,4,604.
Pannese,A.,&Hirsch,J.(2011).Self-face enhances processing of immediately preceding invisible faces.Neuropsychologia,49(3),564-573.
Preston,C.,&Newport,R.(2010).Self-denial and the role of intentions in the attribution of agency.Consciousness and Cognition,19(4),986-998.
Shimada,S.,Fukuda,K.,&Hiraki,K.(2009).Rubber hand illusion under delayed visual feedback.PLoS ONE,4(7),e6185.
Tajadura-Jiménez,A.,Grehl,S.,&Tsakiris,M.(2012).The other in me Interpersonal multisensory stimulation changes the mental representation o the self.PLoS ONE,7(7),e40682.
Tsakiris,M.(2010).My body in the brain:a neurocognitive model of bodyownership.Neuropsychologia,48(3),703-712.
Tsakiris,M.,&Haggard,P.(2005).The rubber hand illusion revisited:Visuotactile integration and self-attribution.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,31(1),80-91.
Tsakiris,M.,Prabhu,G.,&Haggard,P.(2006).Having a body versus moving your body:How agency structures body-ownership.Consciousness and Cognition,15,423-432.
van der Hoort,B.,Guterstam,A.,&Ehrsson,H.H.(2011).Being Barbie:The size of one’s own body determines the perceived size of the world.PLoS ONE,6(5),e20195.
Zheng,Z.Z.,Mac Donald,E.N.,Munhall,K.G.,&Johnsrude,I.S.(2011)Perceiving a stranger's voice as being one's own:A‘rubber voice’Illusion?PLoS ONE,6(4),e18655.
Zhang,J.,&Hommel,B.(in press).Body ownership and response to threat Psychological Research.
Zhang,J.,Ma,K.,&Hommel,B.(2015).Is the body image an illusion?The effect of spatial reference frames on perceived body ownership.Frontiers in Psychology,6,1647.