便携式粉尘观测仪测定腾格里沙漠和毛乌素沙地PM_(10)释放通量
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摘要
中国北方沙漠和沙地是亚洲粉尘释放的重要源区,定量估算这一地区的粉尘释放量有助于评估区域大气环境质量及其气候效应.目前,对中国北方粉尘释放量的估算主要是基于模拟结果,野外直接观测数据很少.利用一种新型的粉尘释放观测仪器——便携式粉尘观测仪(PI-SWERL),测量腾格里沙漠和毛乌素沙地若干典型地表(沙丘、干湖、灌丛沙丘、河流冲积物等)的粉尘释放通量,获得了不同地表潜在粉尘释放量的直接观测数据.结果表明,不同地表的PM10释放通量存在较大差异,但均随摩阻风速的增加而增加.在相同的摩阻风速U*=0.55 m/s条件下,灌丛沙丘的PM10通量最高(0.70~10.23 mg/(m2 s)),河流冲积物次之(0.12~4.97 mg/(m2 s)),干湖湖底、沙丘等地表的通量较小(<0.5 mg/(m2 s)).对比试验表明,破碎结壳地表释放的PM10通量是未破碎结壳的几倍甚至几十倍;披覆松散沙粒结壳地面的PM10释放通量高出未披覆的1~2个数量级.对比前人研究结果,PI-SWERL可以较好地反映不同源区粉尘释放的差异,对定量评估区域乃至全球的粉尘释放量等具有重要意义.
The deserts and sand fields of northern China are important sources of dust in Asia. Quantitative estimations of dust emission flux in this region will contribute to the assessment of regional environmental air quality and its climatic impact. Previous evaluations of dust emission have largely been based on numerical simulations with few direct field measurements. In this study, we used the new portable in situ wind erosion laboratory(PI-SWERL) to measure the dust emission fluxes of several typical surface sediments(i.e., dunes, dry lakes, coppice dunes, and fluvial deposits) in the Tengger Desert and Mu Us sand field, from which the potential emission fluxes of the different soil/sediment types were derived. Our results showed that dust emissions could be characterized into four basic types, indicating the comprehensive effect of aerodynamic entrainment and sand saltation on dust emission. Furthermore, irrespective of whether the particles are clay or silt, supply should be considered when evaluating dust emission. It was found that PM10 emission flux varies with landform surface and increases with friction velocity(U*). When U* = 0.55 m/s, the PM10 emission flux of coppice dunes is greatest(0.70–10.23 mg/(m2 s)), followed by fluvial deposits(0.12–4.97 mg/(m2 s)); the fluxes of dry lakes and sand dunes are both low(<0.5 mg/(m2 s)). To understand the influence of surface crust on dust emission, we designed an experiment to investigate its effects. It was revealed that the PM10 emission flux of a crusted surface is several times or even dozens of times greater than without a crust; sand particles on a crusted surface also increase the PM10 emission flux by 1–2 orders of magnitude. The reliability and accuracy of our data were verified against the results of previous studies; some differences could be attributed to the effects of climate, soil, and topography. We demonstrate that PI-SWERL can be used to reflect differences in the emissions of different dust sources, which is of great significance with regard to the study of regional or even global dust emissions.
The deserts and sand fields of northern China are important sources of dust in Asia. Quantitative estimations of dust emission flux in this region will contribute to the assessment of regional environmental air quality and its climatic impact. Previous evaluations of dust emission have largely been based on numerical simulations with few direct field measurements. In this study, we used the new portable in situ wind erosion laboratory(PI-SWERL) to measure the dust emission fluxes of several typical surface sediments(i.e., dunes, dry lakes, coppice dunes, and fluvial deposits) in the Tengger Desert and Mu Us sand field, from which the potential emission fluxes of the different soil/sediment types were derived. Our results showed that dust emissions could be characterized into four basic types, indicating the comprehensive effect of aerodynamic entrainment and sand saltation on dust emission. Furthermore, irrespective of whether the particles are clay or silt, supply should be considered when evaluating dust emission. It was found that PM10 emission flux varies with landform surface and increases with friction velocity(U*). When U* = 0.55 m/s, the PM10 emission flux of coppice dunes is greatest(0.70–10.23 mg/(m2 s)), followed by fluvial deposits(0.12–4.97 mg/(m2 s)); the fluxes of dry lakes and sand dunes are both low(<0.5 mg/(m2 s)). To understand the influence of surface crust on dust emission, we designed an experiment to investigate its effects. It was revealed that the PM10 emission flux of a crusted surface is several times or even dozens of times greater than without a crust; sand particles on a crusted surface also increase the PM10 emission flux by 1–2 orders of magnitude. The reliability and accuracy of our data were verified against the results of previous studies; some differences could be attributed to the effects of climate, soil, and topography. We demonstrate that PI-SWERL can be used to reflect differences in the emissions of different dust sources, which is of great significance with regard to the study of regional or even global dust emissions.
引文
1 Perlwitz J,Tegen I,Miller R L.Interactive soil dust aerosol model in the GISS GCM:1.Sensitivity of the soil dust cycle to radiative properties of soil dust aerosols.J Geophys Res Atmos,2001,106:18167–18192
2 Gong S L,Zhang X Y,Zhao T L,et al.Characterization of soil dust aerosol in China and its transport and distribution during 2001ACE–Asia:2.Model simulation and validation.J Geophys Res Atmos,2003,108:ACH4-1-9
3 Kohfeld K E,Tegen I.Record of mineral aerosols and their role in the earth system.Treatise Geochem,2007,4:1–26
4 Ferrat M,Langmann B,Cui X,et al.Numerical simulations of dust fluxes to the eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau:Comparison of model results with a Holocene peat record of dust deposition.J Geophys Res Atmos,2013,118:4597–4609
5 Gao Y,Arimoto R,Zhou M Y,et al.Relationships between the dust concentrations over eastern Asia and the remote North Pacific.J Geophys Res Atmos,1992,97:9867–9872
6 Jickells T D,An Z S,Andersen K K,et al.Global iron connections between desert dust,ocean biogeochemistry,and climate.Science,2005,308:67–71
7 Martin J H.Glacial-interglacial CO2 change:The iron hypothesis.Paleoceanography,1990,5:1–13
8 Marticorena B,Bergametti G,Aumont B,et al.Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle:2.Simulation of Saharan dust sources.J Geophys Res Atmos,1997,10:4387–4404
9 Zhang X Y,Gong S L,Zhao T L,et al.Sources of Asian dust and role of climate change versus desertification in Asian dust emission.Geophys Res Lett,2003,30:2272
10 Sima A,Kageyama M,Rousseau D,et al.Modeling dust emission response to North Atlantic millennial-scale climate variations from the perspective of East European MIS 3 loess deposits.Clim Past,2013,9:1385–1402
11 Sima A,Kageyama M,Rousseau D,et al.Modeling dust emission response to MIS 3 millennial climate variations from the perspective of East European loess deposits.Clim Past,2013,9:143–185
12 Munson S M,Belnap J,Okin G S.Responses of wind erosion to climate-induced vegetation changes on the Colorado Plateau.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA,2011,108:3854–3859
13 Xuan J,Sokolik I N.Characterization of sources and emission rates of mineral dust in Northern China.Atmos Environ,2002,36:4863–4876
14 Zhang X Y.Source distributions,emissions,transport,deposition of Asian dust and loess accumulation(in Chinese).Quat Res,2001,21:29 –40[张小曳.亚洲粉尘的源区分布、释放、输送、沉降与黄土堆积.第四纪研究,2001,21:29–40]
15 Wang H,Jia X.Field observations of windblown sand and dust in the Taklimakan desert,NW China,and insights into modern dust sources.Land Degradation Develop,2013,24:323–333
16 Zu R P,Qu J J,Gao Q Z.A field experimental study on the sampling efficiency among three kinds of passive sand traps(in Chinese).Arid Land Geogr,2002,25:214–218[俎瑞平,屈建军,高前兆.三种被动式积沙仪积沙效率的野外实验研究.干旱区地理,2002,25:214 –218]
17 Mei F M,Rajot J,Alfaro S,et al.Field observation of dust emission flux of Mu Us Desert and validation of DPM model(in Chinese).Chin Sci Bull,2006,51:1326–1332[梅凡民,Rajot J,Alfaro S,等.毛乌素沙地的粉尘释放通量观测及DPM模型的野外验证.科学通报,2006,51:1326–1332]
18 Mei F M,Zhang X Y,Lu H Y,et al.Surface aggregatate size distribution of northern China and its impacts on dust emission flux(in Chinese).Chin Sci Bull,2004,49:1776–1784[梅凡民,张小曳,鹿化煜,等.中国北方表土微团粒粒度分布及其对粉尘释放通量的影响.科学通报,2004,49:1776–1784]
19 Su X,Wang H,Tao H,et al.Simulation on the spatio-temporal distribution and emission flux of dust aerosol over East Asia in2000–2009.Sci Cold Arid Regions,2013,2:230–239
20 Mei F M,Zhang X Y,Lu H Y,et al.Review on progress in modeling dust emission caused by wind erosion(in Chinese).J Desert Res,2004,24:791–797[梅凡民,张小曳,鹿化煜,等.若干风蚀粉尘释放模型述评.中国沙漠,2004,24:791–797]
21 Zhu H,Zhang H S.Review on progress in field observation and parameterization of dust emission flux(in Chinese).Acta Sci Nat Univer Pekinensis,2011,47:768–776[朱好,张宏升.沙尘释放通量外场观测和参数化研究进展.北京大学学报(自然科学版),2011,47:768 –776]
22 Bagnold R A.The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes.London:Methuen,1941
23 Ling Y Q,Wu Z,Liu S Z,et al.A wind tunnel simulation of aeolian sand ripple formation(in Chinese).Acta Geogr Sin,1998,53:520 –527[凌裕泉,吴正,刘绍中,等.风成沙纹形成的风洞模拟研究.地理学报,1998,53:520–527]
24 Goossens D,Offer Z,London G.Wind tunnel and field calibration of five aeolian sand traps.Geomorphology,2000,35:233–252
25 Goossens D,Offer Z Y.Wind tunnel and field calibration of six aeolian dust samplers.Atmos Environ,2000,34:1043–1057
26 Qu J J,Zhang K C,Zhang W M,et al.Characteristics of sand-blown flow over simulated gobi surfaces(in Chinese).J Desert Res,2012,32 :285–290[屈建军,张克存,张伟民,等.几种典型戈壁床面风沙流特性比较.中国沙漠,2012,32:285–290]
27 Scott Van Pelt R,Baddock M C,Zobeck T M,et al.Field wind tunnel testing of two silt loam soils on the North American Central High Plains.Aeolian Res,2013,10:53–59
28 Youssef F,Visser S M,Karssenberg D,et al.The effect of vegetation patterns on Aeolian mass flux at regional scale:A wind tunnel study.8th International Symposium Agro Environ(Agro Environ 2012),2012
29 Etyemezian V,Nikolich G,Ahonen S,et al.The Portable in Situ Wind Erosion Laboratory(PI-SWERL):A new method to measure PM10windblown dust properties and potential for emissions.Atmos Environ,2007,41:3789–3796
30 Sweeney M,Etyemezian V,Macpherson T,et al.Comparison of PI-SWERL with dust emission measurements from a straight-line field wind tunnel.J Geophys Res,2008,113:1–12
31 Sweeney M R,Mcdonald E V,Etyemezian V.Quantifying dust emissions from desert landforms,eastern Mojave Desert,USA.Geomorphology,2011,135:21–34
32 Bacon S N,Mcdonald E V,Amit R,et al.Total suspended particulate matter emissions at high friction velocities from desert landforms.J Geophys Res,2011,116:F0300191-17
33 King J,Etyemezian V,Sweeney M,et al.Dust emission variability at the Salton Sea,California,USA.Aeolian Res,2011,3:67–79
34 Kavouras I G,Etyemezian V,Nikolich G,et al.A new technique for characterizing the efficacy of fugitive dust suppressants.J Air Waste Manage Assoc,2009,59:603–612
35 Buck B J,Kingb J,Etyemezian V.Effects of salt mineralogy on dust emissions,Salton Sea,California.Soil Sci Soc Am J,2011,75:1971–1985
36 Sweeney M R,Mason J A.Mechanisms of dust emission from Pleistocene loess deposits,Nebraska,USA.J Geophys Res:Earth Surface,2013,118:1–12
37 Goossens D,Buck B.Dust dynamics in off-road vehicle trails:Measurements on 16 arid soil types,Nevada,USA.J Environ Manage,2009,90:3458–3469
38 Wu Z.Chinese Deserts and Sand Disaster Control.Beijing:Science Publishing House,2009.562–573[吴正.中国沙漠及其治理.北京:科学出版社,2009.562–573]
39 Zhu F Y,Lu H Y,Zhang W C,et al.Mapping deserts and sandy fields in northern China and surface process analysis based on 3S techniques.Quat Res,2013,33:197–205[朱芳莹,鹿化煜,张文超,等.中国北方沙漠(沙地)地理底图绘制与地表动态过程分析——基于3S技术的新结果.第四纪研究,2013,33:197–205]
40 Xu Z,Mason J A,Lu H.Vegetated dune morphodynamics during recent stabilization of the Mu Us dune field,north-central China.Geomorphology,2015,228:486–503
41 Wu Z.Chinese Deserts and Sand Disaster Control.Beijing:Science Publishing House,2009.546–555[吴正.中国沙漠及其治理.北京:科学出版社,2009.546–555]
42 Houser C A,Nickling W G.The emission and vertical flux of particulate matter<10μm from a disturbed clay-crusted surface.Sedimentology,2001,48:255–267
43 Rajot J L,Alfaro S C,Gomes L,et al.Soil crusting on sandy soils and its influence on wind erosion.Catena,2003,53:1–16
44 Belnap J.The potential roles of biological soil crusts in dryland hydrologic cycles.Hydrol Process,2006,20:3159–3178
45 Cornelis W M,Gabriels D.The effect of surface moisture on the entrainment of dune sand by wind––An evaluation of selected models.Sedimentology,2003,50:771–790
46 Wang Z T.Influence of moisture on the entrainment of sand by wind.Powder Tech,2006,164:89–93
47 Lu H Y,An Z S.Influence of different pretreatment procedures on the particle size distribution of loess(in Chinese).Chin Sci Bull,1997,42 :2535–2538[鹿化煜,安芷生.前处理方法对黄土沉积物粒度测量影响的实验研究.科学通报,1997,42:2535–2538]
48 Wentworth C K.A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments.J Geol,1922,377–392
49 Shao Y P.Effect of saltation bombardment on the entrainment of dust by wind.J Geophys Res,1993,98:12719–12726
50 Marticorena B,Bergametti G.Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle:1.Design of a soil-derived dust emission scheme.J Geophys Res Atmos,1995,100:16415–16430
51 Alfaro S C,Gomes L.Modeling mineral aerosol production by wind erosion:Emission intensities and aerosol size distributions in source areas.J Geophys Res,2001,106:18075–18084
52 Dong Z,Man D,Luo W,et al.Horizontal aeolian sediment flux in the Minqin area,a major source of Chinese dust storms.Geomorphology,2010,116:58–66
2 Gong S L,Zhang X Y,Zhao T L,et al.Characterization of soil dust aerosol in China and its transport and distribution during 2001ACE–Asia:2.Model simulation and validation.J Geophys Res Atmos,2003,108:ACH4-1-9
3 Kohfeld K E,Tegen I.Record of mineral aerosols and their role in the earth system.Treatise Geochem,2007,4:1–26
4 Ferrat M,Langmann B,Cui X,et al.Numerical simulations of dust fluxes to the eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau:Comparison of model results with a Holocene peat record of dust deposition.J Geophys Res Atmos,2013,118:4597–4609
5 Gao Y,Arimoto R,Zhou M Y,et al.Relationships between the dust concentrations over eastern Asia and the remote North Pacific.J Geophys Res Atmos,1992,97:9867–9872
6 Jickells T D,An Z S,Andersen K K,et al.Global iron connections between desert dust,ocean biogeochemistry,and climate.Science,2005,308:67–71
7 Martin J H.Glacial-interglacial CO2 change:The iron hypothesis.Paleoceanography,1990,5:1–13
8 Marticorena B,Bergametti G,Aumont B,et al.Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle:2.Simulation of Saharan dust sources.J Geophys Res Atmos,1997,10:4387–4404
9 Zhang X Y,Gong S L,Zhao T L,et al.Sources of Asian dust and role of climate change versus desertification in Asian dust emission.Geophys Res Lett,2003,30:2272
10 Sima A,Kageyama M,Rousseau D,et al.Modeling dust emission response to North Atlantic millennial-scale climate variations from the perspective of East European MIS 3 loess deposits.Clim Past,2013,9:1385–1402
11 Sima A,Kageyama M,Rousseau D,et al.Modeling dust emission response to MIS 3 millennial climate variations from the perspective of East European loess deposits.Clim Past,2013,9:143–185
12 Munson S M,Belnap J,Okin G S.Responses of wind erosion to climate-induced vegetation changes on the Colorado Plateau.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA,2011,108:3854–3859
13 Xuan J,Sokolik I N.Characterization of sources and emission rates of mineral dust in Northern China.Atmos Environ,2002,36:4863–4876
14 Zhang X Y.Source distributions,emissions,transport,deposition of Asian dust and loess accumulation(in Chinese).Quat Res,2001,21:29 –40[张小曳.亚洲粉尘的源区分布、释放、输送、沉降与黄土堆积.第四纪研究,2001,21:29–40]
15 Wang H,Jia X.Field observations of windblown sand and dust in the Taklimakan desert,NW China,and insights into modern dust sources.Land Degradation Develop,2013,24:323–333
16 Zu R P,Qu J J,Gao Q Z.A field experimental study on the sampling efficiency among three kinds of passive sand traps(in Chinese).Arid Land Geogr,2002,25:214–218[俎瑞平,屈建军,高前兆.三种被动式积沙仪积沙效率的野外实验研究.干旱区地理,2002,25:214 –218]
17 Mei F M,Rajot J,Alfaro S,et al.Field observation of dust emission flux of Mu Us Desert and validation of DPM model(in Chinese).Chin Sci Bull,2006,51:1326–1332[梅凡民,Rajot J,Alfaro S,等.毛乌素沙地的粉尘释放通量观测及DPM模型的野外验证.科学通报,2006,51:1326–1332]
18 Mei F M,Zhang X Y,Lu H Y,et al.Surface aggregatate size distribution of northern China and its impacts on dust emission flux(in Chinese).Chin Sci Bull,2004,49:1776–1784[梅凡民,张小曳,鹿化煜,等.中国北方表土微团粒粒度分布及其对粉尘释放通量的影响.科学通报,2004,49:1776–1784]
19 Su X,Wang H,Tao H,et al.Simulation on the spatio-temporal distribution and emission flux of dust aerosol over East Asia in2000–2009.Sci Cold Arid Regions,2013,2:230–239
20 Mei F M,Zhang X Y,Lu H Y,et al.Review on progress in modeling dust emission caused by wind erosion(in Chinese).J Desert Res,2004,24:791–797[梅凡民,张小曳,鹿化煜,等.若干风蚀粉尘释放模型述评.中国沙漠,2004,24:791–797]
21 Zhu H,Zhang H S.Review on progress in field observation and parameterization of dust emission flux(in Chinese).Acta Sci Nat Univer Pekinensis,2011,47:768–776[朱好,张宏升.沙尘释放通量外场观测和参数化研究进展.北京大学学报(自然科学版),2011,47:768 –776]
22 Bagnold R A.The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes.London:Methuen,1941
23 Ling Y Q,Wu Z,Liu S Z,et al.A wind tunnel simulation of aeolian sand ripple formation(in Chinese).Acta Geogr Sin,1998,53:520 –527[凌裕泉,吴正,刘绍中,等.风成沙纹形成的风洞模拟研究.地理学报,1998,53:520–527]
24 Goossens D,Offer Z,London G.Wind tunnel and field calibration of five aeolian sand traps.Geomorphology,2000,35:233–252
25 Goossens D,Offer Z Y.Wind tunnel and field calibration of six aeolian dust samplers.Atmos Environ,2000,34:1043–1057
26 Qu J J,Zhang K C,Zhang W M,et al.Characteristics of sand-blown flow over simulated gobi surfaces(in Chinese).J Desert Res,2012,32 :285–290[屈建军,张克存,张伟民,等.几种典型戈壁床面风沙流特性比较.中国沙漠,2012,32:285–290]
27 Scott Van Pelt R,Baddock M C,Zobeck T M,et al.Field wind tunnel testing of two silt loam soils on the North American Central High Plains.Aeolian Res,2013,10:53–59
28 Youssef F,Visser S M,Karssenberg D,et al.The effect of vegetation patterns on Aeolian mass flux at regional scale:A wind tunnel study.8th International Symposium Agro Environ(Agro Environ 2012),2012
29 Etyemezian V,Nikolich G,Ahonen S,et al.The Portable in Situ Wind Erosion Laboratory(PI-SWERL):A new method to measure PM10windblown dust properties and potential for emissions.Atmos Environ,2007,41:3789–3796
30 Sweeney M,Etyemezian V,Macpherson T,et al.Comparison of PI-SWERL with dust emission measurements from a straight-line field wind tunnel.J Geophys Res,2008,113:1–12
31 Sweeney M R,Mcdonald E V,Etyemezian V.Quantifying dust emissions from desert landforms,eastern Mojave Desert,USA.Geomorphology,2011,135:21–34
32 Bacon S N,Mcdonald E V,Amit R,et al.Total suspended particulate matter emissions at high friction velocities from desert landforms.J Geophys Res,2011,116:F0300191-17
33 King J,Etyemezian V,Sweeney M,et al.Dust emission variability at the Salton Sea,California,USA.Aeolian Res,2011,3:67–79
34 Kavouras I G,Etyemezian V,Nikolich G,et al.A new technique for characterizing the efficacy of fugitive dust suppressants.J Air Waste Manage Assoc,2009,59:603–612
35 Buck B J,Kingb J,Etyemezian V.Effects of salt mineralogy on dust emissions,Salton Sea,California.Soil Sci Soc Am J,2011,75:1971–1985
36 Sweeney M R,Mason J A.Mechanisms of dust emission from Pleistocene loess deposits,Nebraska,USA.J Geophys Res:Earth Surface,2013,118:1–12
37 Goossens D,Buck B.Dust dynamics in off-road vehicle trails:Measurements on 16 arid soil types,Nevada,USA.J Environ Manage,2009,90:3458–3469
38 Wu Z.Chinese Deserts and Sand Disaster Control.Beijing:Science Publishing House,2009.562–573[吴正.中国沙漠及其治理.北京:科学出版社,2009.562–573]
39 Zhu F Y,Lu H Y,Zhang W C,et al.Mapping deserts and sandy fields in northern China and surface process analysis based on 3S techniques.Quat Res,2013,33:197–205[朱芳莹,鹿化煜,张文超,等.中国北方沙漠(沙地)地理底图绘制与地表动态过程分析——基于3S技术的新结果.第四纪研究,2013,33:197–205]
40 Xu Z,Mason J A,Lu H.Vegetated dune morphodynamics during recent stabilization of the Mu Us dune field,north-central China.Geomorphology,2015,228:486–503
41 Wu Z.Chinese Deserts and Sand Disaster Control.Beijing:Science Publishing House,2009.546–555[吴正.中国沙漠及其治理.北京:科学出版社,2009.546–555]
42 Houser C A,Nickling W G.The emission and vertical flux of particulate matter<10μm from a disturbed clay-crusted surface.Sedimentology,2001,48:255–267
43 Rajot J L,Alfaro S C,Gomes L,et al.Soil crusting on sandy soils and its influence on wind erosion.Catena,2003,53:1–16
44 Belnap J.The potential roles of biological soil crusts in dryland hydrologic cycles.Hydrol Process,2006,20:3159–3178
45 Cornelis W M,Gabriels D.The effect of surface moisture on the entrainment of dune sand by wind––An evaluation of selected models.Sedimentology,2003,50:771–790
46 Wang Z T.Influence of moisture on the entrainment of sand by wind.Powder Tech,2006,164:89–93
47 Lu H Y,An Z S.Influence of different pretreatment procedures on the particle size distribution of loess(in Chinese).Chin Sci Bull,1997,42 :2535–2538[鹿化煜,安芷生.前处理方法对黄土沉积物粒度测量影响的实验研究.科学通报,1997,42:2535–2538]
48 Wentworth C K.A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments.J Geol,1922,377–392
49 Shao Y P.Effect of saltation bombardment on the entrainment of dust by wind.J Geophys Res,1993,98:12719–12726
50 Marticorena B,Bergametti G.Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle:1.Design of a soil-derived dust emission scheme.J Geophys Res Atmos,1995,100:16415–16430
51 Alfaro S C,Gomes L.Modeling mineral aerosol production by wind erosion:Emission intensities and aerosol size distributions in source areas.J Geophys Res,2001,106:18075–18084
52 Dong Z,Man D,Luo W,et al.Horizontal aeolian sediment flux in the Minqin area,a major source of Chinese dust storms.Geomorphology,2010,116:58–66