地下火及阴燃研究进展
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摘要
地下火是一种燃烧强度低、持续时间长且隐蔽性强的火灾类型,它常发生于森林和湿地的腐殖质层和泥炭层。在干旱季节,地下火在全球范围内均有分布,并且受气候变化和极端天气条件影响。地下火会严重损伤树木的根系从而造成森林的大面积死亡,但却是湿地生态系统得以形成和维持的重要因素,缓慢的阴燃还会释放存储在泥炭层中大量的碳以及PM2.5和PM10等有害物质。地表火和闪电等都能引发地下火,而泥炭的阴燃主要受含水率、灰分含量和结构的影响。目前,主要依靠泥炭可燃物的属性、可燃物湿度码等对地下火的发生概率进行预测,但地下火一旦发生还没有有效的扑救方法。本文就涉及上述内容的文献进行了综述研究,以期对地下火的管理及火后生态恢复等理论和实践提供有价值的参考。
Ground fire is low-intensity,prolonged and hard to detect that often occurs in humus layer and peat layer of forest and wetland.Ground fires distributed around the world during dry seasons and are affected by climate change and extreme weather conditions.Tree roots will be seriously damaged in ground fire that will lead to the high mortality of trees in post-fire forest.However,it is an important factor for the creation and maintenance of the wetland ecosystem.Slow smoldering process in ground fire can release large amounts of carbon stored in the peat layer as well as harmful smoke including PM2.5 and PM10.Ground fire can be triggered by surface fire and lightning,and the following smoldering of peat is mainly affected by moisture content,mineral content and its structure.At present,the probability of ground fire is predicted mainly by the properties of peat and FWI fuel moisture code(DMC and DC).In this paper,the literature related to the above content is reviewed to provide valuable reference for the ground fire management and post-fire ecological restoration in theory and practice.
Ground fire is low-intensity,prolonged and hard to detect that often occurs in humus layer and peat layer of forest and wetland.Ground fires distributed around the world during dry seasons and are affected by climate change and extreme weather conditions.Tree roots will be seriously damaged in ground fire that will lead to the high mortality of trees in post-fire forest.However,it is an important factor for the creation and maintenance of the wetland ecosystem.Slow smoldering process in ground fire can release large amounts of carbon stored in the peat layer as well as harmful smoke including PM2.5 and PM10.Ground fire can be triggered by surface fire and lightning,and the following smoldering of peat is mainly affected by moisture content,mineral content and its structure.At present,the probability of ground fire is predicted mainly by the properties of peat and FWI fuel moisture code(DMC and DC).In this paper,the literature related to the above content is reviewed to provide valuable reference for the ground fire management and post-fire ecological restoration in theory and practice.
引文
[1]Turetsky M R,Benscoter B,Page S,et al.Global vulnerability of peatlands to fire and carbon loss[J].Nature Geoscience,2015,8(1):11.
[2]Rein G,Cleaver N,Ashton C,et al.The severity of smouldering peat fires and damage to the forest soil[J].Catena,2008,4(3):304-309.
[3]Turetsky M R,Kane E S,Harden J W,et al.Recent acceleration of biomass burning and carbon losses in Alaskan forests and peatlands[J].Nature Geoscience,2011,4(1):27.
[4]Benscoter B W,Thompson D K,Waddington J M,et al.Interactive effects of vegetation,soil moisture and bulk density on depth of burning of thick organic soils[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,2011,20(3):418-429.
[5]Watts A C.Organic soil combustion in cypress swamps:moisture effects and landscape implications for carbon release[J].Forest Ecology and Management,2013,294:178-187.
[6]Reardon J,Curcio G,Bartlette R.Soil moisture dynamics and smoldering combustion limits of pocosin soils in North Carolina,USA[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,2009,18(3):326-335.
[7]Davies G M,Gray A,Rein G,et al.Peat consumption and carbon loss due to smouldering wildfire in a temperate peatland[J].Forest Ecology and Management,2013,308:169-177.
[8]Page S E,Siegert F,Rieley J O,et al.The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during1997[J].Nature,2002,420(6911):61.
[9]Peres C A.Ground fires as agents of mortality in a Central Amazonian forest[J].Journal of tropical Ecology,1999,15(4):535-541.
[10]赵伟涛,陈海翔,周建军,等.森林泥炭的热解特性及热解动力学[J].物理化学学报,2009,25(9):1756-1762.
[11]赵鹏飞,李宜垠.大兴安岭泥炭地1300年来泥炭藓孢子和炭屑记录及其指示意义[J].第四纪研究,2012,32(3):563-564.
[12]Bertschi I,Yokelson R J,Ward D E,et al.Trace gas and particle emissions from fires in large diameter and belowground biomass fuels[J].Journal of Geophysical Research:Atmospheres,2003,108(D13).
[13]舒立福,王明玉,田晓瑞,等.大兴安岭林区地下火形成火环境研究[J].自然灾害学报,2003,12(4):62-67.
[14]Evtyugina M,Calvo A I,Nunes T,et al.VOC emissions of smouldering combustion from Mediterranean wildfires in central Portugal[J].Atmospheric Environment,2013,64:339-348.
[15]Harden J W,Manies K L,Turetsky M R,et al.Effects of wildfire and permafrost on soil organic matter and soil climate in interior Alaska[J].Global Change Biology,2006,12(12):2391-2403.
[16]Madrigal J,Hernando C,Guijarro M,et al.Smouldering fire-induced changes in a Mediterranean soil(SE Spain):effects on germination,survival and morphological traits of 3-year-old Pinus pinaster Ait[J].Plant Ecology,2010,208(2):279-292.
[17]Gunderson L H.Regeneration of cypress,Taxodium distichum and Taxodium ascendens,in logged and burned cypress strands at Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary,Florida[D].University of Florida,1977.
[18]Watts A C,Kobziar L N.Smoldering combustion and ground fires:ecological effects and multi-scale signifi cance[J].Fire Ecology,2013,9(1):124-132.
[19]Robinson S D,Moore T R.The infl uence of permafrost and fire upon carbon accumulation in high boreal peatlands,Northwest Territories,Canada[J].Arctic,Antarctic,and Alpine Research,2000,32(2):155-166.
[20]Hungerford R D,Frandsen W H,Ryan K C.Ignition and burning characteristics of organic soils[C]Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference.1995,19:78-91.
[21]赵凤君,王立中,舒立福.火烧对寒温带湿地生态系统的影响[J].西北林学院学报,2013,28(2):136-142.
[22]Reardon J,Hungerford R,Ryan K.Factors affecting sustained smouldering in organic soils from pocosin and pond pine woodland wetlands[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,2007,16(1):107-118.
[23]Harrington M G.Duff mound consumption and cambium injury for centuries-old western larch from prescribed burning in western Montana[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,2013,22(3):359-367.
[24]孔健健,杨健.火干扰对北方针叶林土壤环境的影响[J].土壤通报,2014,45(2):291-296.
[25]Langmann B,Heil A.Release and dispersion of vegetation and peat fire emissions in the atmosphere over Indonesia1997/1998[J].Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics,2004,4(8):2145-2160.
[26]Cancellieri D,Leroy-Cancellieri V,Leoni E,et al.Kinetic investigation on the smouldering combustion of boreal peat[J].Fuel,2012,93:479-485.
[27]Geron C,Hays M.Air emissions from organic soil burning on the coastal plain of North Carolina[J].Atmospheric environment,2013,64:192-199.
[28]Huang X,Restuccia F,Gramola M,et al.Experimental study of the formation and collapse of an overhang in the lateral spread of smouldering peat fires[J].Combustion and Flame,2016,168:393-402.
[29]Zanon V,Viveiros F,Silva C,et al.Impact of lightning on organic matter-rich soils:influence of soil grain size and organic matter content on underground fires[J].Natural Hazards,2008,45(1):19.
[30]Kreye J K,Varner J M,Dugaw C J,et al.Pine cones facilitate ignition of forest fl oor duff[J].Canadian Journal of Forest Research,2013,43(5):512-516.
[31]Frandsen W H.Ignition probability of organic soils[J].Canadian Journal of Forest Research,1997,27(9):1471-1477.
[32]Anderson K.A model to predict lightning-caused fire(下转第62页)occurrences[J].International journal(of wildland fire,2002,11(4):163-)172.
[33]Frandsen W H.Heat evolved from smoldering peat[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,1991,1(3):197-204.
[34]Miyanishi K,Johnson E A.Process and patterns of duff consumption in the mixedwood boreal forest[J].Canadian Journal of Forest Research,2002,32(7):1285-1295.
[35]Rein G.Smouldering combustion phenomena in science and technology[J].2009.
[36]Frandsen W H.The infl uence of moisture and mineral soil on the combustion limits of smoldering forest duff[J].Canadian Journal of Forest Research,1987,17(12):1540-1544.
[37]Garlough E C,Keyes C R.Infl uences of moisture content,mineral content and bulk density on smouldering combustion of ponderosa pine duff mounds[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,2011,20(4):589-596.
[38]Reardon J,Curcio G.Estimated smoldering probability:a new tool for predicting ground fire in the organic soils on the North Carolina Coastal Plain[J].Fire Management Today.2011,71(3):31-35.
[39]Benscoter B W,Vitt D H.Spatial patterns and temporal trajectories of the bog ground layer along a post-fire chronosequence[J].Ecosystems,2008,11(7):1054-1064.
[40]Turetsky M R.Decomposition and organic matter quality in continental peatlands:the ghost of permafrost past[J].Ecosystems,2004,7(7):740-750.
[41]Frandsen W H.Burning rate of smoldering peat[J].Northwest science:official publication of the Northwest Scientifi c Association(USA),1991.
[42]Hartford R A.Smoldering combustion limits in peat as infl uenced by moisture,mineral content,and organic bulk density[C]//Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology.Edited by DC Maiver,H.Auld,R.Whitewood.Ottawa,Ont.Forestry Canada,1989.
[43]Otway S G,Bork E W,Anderson K R,et al.Predicting sustained smouldering combustion in trembling aspen duff in Elk Island National Park,Canada[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,2008,16(6):690-701.
[44]Otway S G,Bork E W,Anderson K R,et al.Relating changes in duff moisture to the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System in Populus tremuloides stands in Elk Island National Park[J].Canadian Journal of Forest Research,2007,37(10):1987-1998.
[45]Sahin Y G.Animals as mobile biological sensors for forest fire detection[J].Sensors,2007,7(12):3084-3099.
[2]Rein G,Cleaver N,Ashton C,et al.The severity of smouldering peat fires and damage to the forest soil[J].Catena,2008,4(3):304-309.
[3]Turetsky M R,Kane E S,Harden J W,et al.Recent acceleration of biomass burning and carbon losses in Alaskan forests and peatlands[J].Nature Geoscience,2011,4(1):27.
[4]Benscoter B W,Thompson D K,Waddington J M,et al.Interactive effects of vegetation,soil moisture and bulk density on depth of burning of thick organic soils[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,2011,20(3):418-429.
[5]Watts A C.Organic soil combustion in cypress swamps:moisture effects and landscape implications for carbon release[J].Forest Ecology and Management,2013,294:178-187.
[6]Reardon J,Curcio G,Bartlette R.Soil moisture dynamics and smoldering combustion limits of pocosin soils in North Carolina,USA[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,2009,18(3):326-335.
[7]Davies G M,Gray A,Rein G,et al.Peat consumption and carbon loss due to smouldering wildfire in a temperate peatland[J].Forest Ecology and Management,2013,308:169-177.
[8]Page S E,Siegert F,Rieley J O,et al.The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during1997[J].Nature,2002,420(6911):61.
[9]Peres C A.Ground fires as agents of mortality in a Central Amazonian forest[J].Journal of tropical Ecology,1999,15(4):535-541.
[10]赵伟涛,陈海翔,周建军,等.森林泥炭的热解特性及热解动力学[J].物理化学学报,2009,25(9):1756-1762.
[11]赵鹏飞,李宜垠.大兴安岭泥炭地1300年来泥炭藓孢子和炭屑记录及其指示意义[J].第四纪研究,2012,32(3):563-564.
[12]Bertschi I,Yokelson R J,Ward D E,et al.Trace gas and particle emissions from fires in large diameter and belowground biomass fuels[J].Journal of Geophysical Research:Atmospheres,2003,108(D13).
[13]舒立福,王明玉,田晓瑞,等.大兴安岭林区地下火形成火环境研究[J].自然灾害学报,2003,12(4):62-67.
[14]Evtyugina M,Calvo A I,Nunes T,et al.VOC emissions of smouldering combustion from Mediterranean wildfires in central Portugal[J].Atmospheric Environment,2013,64:339-348.
[15]Harden J W,Manies K L,Turetsky M R,et al.Effects of wildfire and permafrost on soil organic matter and soil climate in interior Alaska[J].Global Change Biology,2006,12(12):2391-2403.
[16]Madrigal J,Hernando C,Guijarro M,et al.Smouldering fire-induced changes in a Mediterranean soil(SE Spain):effects on germination,survival and morphological traits of 3-year-old Pinus pinaster Ait[J].Plant Ecology,2010,208(2):279-292.
[17]Gunderson L H.Regeneration of cypress,Taxodium distichum and Taxodium ascendens,in logged and burned cypress strands at Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary,Florida[D].University of Florida,1977.
[18]Watts A C,Kobziar L N.Smoldering combustion and ground fires:ecological effects and multi-scale signifi cance[J].Fire Ecology,2013,9(1):124-132.
[19]Robinson S D,Moore T R.The infl uence of permafrost and fire upon carbon accumulation in high boreal peatlands,Northwest Territories,Canada[J].Arctic,Antarctic,and Alpine Research,2000,32(2):155-166.
[20]Hungerford R D,Frandsen W H,Ryan K C.Ignition and burning characteristics of organic soils[C]Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference.1995,19:78-91.
[21]赵凤君,王立中,舒立福.火烧对寒温带湿地生态系统的影响[J].西北林学院学报,2013,28(2):136-142.
[22]Reardon J,Hungerford R,Ryan K.Factors affecting sustained smouldering in organic soils from pocosin and pond pine woodland wetlands[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,2007,16(1):107-118.
[23]Harrington M G.Duff mound consumption and cambium injury for centuries-old western larch from prescribed burning in western Montana[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,2013,22(3):359-367.
[24]孔健健,杨健.火干扰对北方针叶林土壤环境的影响[J].土壤通报,2014,45(2):291-296.
[25]Langmann B,Heil A.Release and dispersion of vegetation and peat fire emissions in the atmosphere over Indonesia1997/1998[J].Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics,2004,4(8):2145-2160.
[26]Cancellieri D,Leroy-Cancellieri V,Leoni E,et al.Kinetic investigation on the smouldering combustion of boreal peat[J].Fuel,2012,93:479-485.
[27]Geron C,Hays M.Air emissions from organic soil burning on the coastal plain of North Carolina[J].Atmospheric environment,2013,64:192-199.
[28]Huang X,Restuccia F,Gramola M,et al.Experimental study of the formation and collapse of an overhang in the lateral spread of smouldering peat fires[J].Combustion and Flame,2016,168:393-402.
[29]Zanon V,Viveiros F,Silva C,et al.Impact of lightning on organic matter-rich soils:influence of soil grain size and organic matter content on underground fires[J].Natural Hazards,2008,45(1):19.
[30]Kreye J K,Varner J M,Dugaw C J,et al.Pine cones facilitate ignition of forest fl oor duff[J].Canadian Journal of Forest Research,2013,43(5):512-516.
[31]Frandsen W H.Ignition probability of organic soils[J].Canadian Journal of Forest Research,1997,27(9):1471-1477.
[32]Anderson K.A model to predict lightning-caused fire(下转第62页)occurrences[J].International journal(of wildland fire,2002,11(4):163-)172.
[33]Frandsen W H.Heat evolved from smoldering peat[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,1991,1(3):197-204.
[34]Miyanishi K,Johnson E A.Process and patterns of duff consumption in the mixedwood boreal forest[J].Canadian Journal of Forest Research,2002,32(7):1285-1295.
[35]Rein G.Smouldering combustion phenomena in science and technology[J].2009.
[36]Frandsen W H.The infl uence of moisture and mineral soil on the combustion limits of smoldering forest duff[J].Canadian Journal of Forest Research,1987,17(12):1540-1544.
[37]Garlough E C,Keyes C R.Infl uences of moisture content,mineral content and bulk density on smouldering combustion of ponderosa pine duff mounds[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,2011,20(4):589-596.
[38]Reardon J,Curcio G.Estimated smoldering probability:a new tool for predicting ground fire in the organic soils on the North Carolina Coastal Plain[J].Fire Management Today.2011,71(3):31-35.
[39]Benscoter B W,Vitt D H.Spatial patterns and temporal trajectories of the bog ground layer along a post-fire chronosequence[J].Ecosystems,2008,11(7):1054-1064.
[40]Turetsky M R.Decomposition and organic matter quality in continental peatlands:the ghost of permafrost past[J].Ecosystems,2004,7(7):740-750.
[41]Frandsen W H.Burning rate of smoldering peat[J].Northwest science:official publication of the Northwest Scientifi c Association(USA),1991.
[42]Hartford R A.Smoldering combustion limits in peat as infl uenced by moisture,mineral content,and organic bulk density[C]//Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology.Edited by DC Maiver,H.Auld,R.Whitewood.Ottawa,Ont.Forestry Canada,1989.
[43]Otway S G,Bork E W,Anderson K R,et al.Predicting sustained smouldering combustion in trembling aspen duff in Elk Island National Park,Canada[J].International Journal of Wildland Fire,2008,16(6):690-701.
[44]Otway S G,Bork E W,Anderson K R,et al.Relating changes in duff moisture to the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System in Populus tremuloides stands in Elk Island National Park[J].Canadian Journal of Forest Research,2007,37(10):1987-1998.
[45]Sahin Y G.Animals as mobile biological sensors for forest fire detection[J].Sensors,2007,7(12):3084-3099.