马克思主义生态学的历史逻辑与理论问题域
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摘要
人类命运共同体思想是马克思生态哲学思想的逻辑延续和当代表达。为了更好地理解这一点,我们有必要关注马克思主义生态学思想的问题域和历史逻辑,即马克思对资本主义的生态批判以及人类社会发展中具有开创性的、秉承绿色发展理念的论断:其一,人与自然、社会与自然的方法与马克思对资本主义社会的批判密切相关,为历史唯物主义提供了分析当代生态危机和社会转型的独特视域。其二,马克思主义阵营的分裂集中体现在辩证法对自然界的适用性以及马克思和恩格斯在这一问题上的不同立场。其三,马克思立足资本积累展开了资本主义生产的生态批判,《资本论》同时还可以被理解为生态经济学批判。其四,空间的边界乃是福斯特提出的人类安全空间问题,是对马克思新陈代谢断裂理论思想的推进。其五,在人与自然的持续和谐相处中,推进全球绿色发展、构建人类命运共同体。
The idea of a community of shared future is the logical continuation and contemporary expression of Marx's ecological philosophy. It is necessary to pay attention to the historical logic and theoretical issue of Marxist ecology, that is, Marx's ecological critique of capitalism and the groundbreaking and adhering to the green development concept in the development of human society. First,the methods of man and nature, society and nature are closely related to Marx's critique of capitalist society,providing historical materialism with a unique perspective for analyzing contemporary ecological crisis and social transformation. Second,one of Marxism' s greatest division is concentrated in the applicability of dialectics to nature and the different positions of Marx and Engels. Third,Marx launches an ecological critique of capitalist production based on capital accumulation. Capitalism could also be understood as an ecological economic critique. Moreover,the boundary of space is the question of human security space proposed by John Bellamy Foster,and it is the advancement of Marx's metabolism. Finally,in the continuous harmony between men and nature, it is of great importance to promote global green development and to build a community of shared future.
The idea of a community of shared future is the logical continuation and contemporary expression of Marx's ecological philosophy. It is necessary to pay attention to the historical logic and theoretical issue of Marxist ecology, that is, Marx's ecological critique of capitalism and the groundbreaking and adhering to the green development concept in the development of human society. First,the methods of man and nature, society and nature are closely related to Marx's critique of capitalist society,providing historical materialism with a unique perspective for analyzing contemporary ecological crisis and social transformation. Second,one of Marxism' s greatest division is concentrated in the applicability of dialectics to nature and the different positions of Marx and Engels. Third,Marx launches an ecological critique of capitalist production based on capital accumulation. Capitalism could also be understood as an ecological economic critique. Moreover,the boundary of space is the question of human security space proposed by John Bellamy Foster,and it is the advancement of Marx's metabolism. Finally,in the continuous harmony between men and nature, it is of great importance to promote global green development and to build a community of shared future.
引文
《马克思恩格斯文集》第1卷,2009,人民出版社。
《马克思恩格斯文集》第2卷,2009,人民出版社。
《马克思恩格斯文集》第5卷,2009,人民出版社。
《马克思恩格斯文集》第7卷,2009,人民出版社。
罗莎·卢森堡,1984,《卢森堡文选》(上卷),人民出版社。
习近平,2017,《决胜全面建成小康社会夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利---在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告》,人民出版社。
詹姆斯·奥康纳,2003,《自然的理由---生态学马克思主义研究》,唐正东、臧佩洪译,南京大学出版社。
Altvater,E.,1993,The Future of the Market,Verso.
Anderson,K.,2013,“Why Carbon Prices Can’t Deliver the 2°C Target”,August 13,http://kevinanderson.info.
Anderson,P.,1976,Considerations on Western Marxism,New Left Books.
Angus,I.,2015,“When Did the Anthropocene Begin…and Why Does it Matter?”Monthly Review,vol.67,no.4.
Benton,T.,1989,“Marxism and Natural Limits”,New Left Review,vol.178,no.5.
Bhandari,R.,2015,“Marxian Economics:The Oldest Systems Theory is New Again(or Always)?”April 9,http://ineteconomics.org.
Bukharin,N.et al.,1971,Science at the Crossroads,Frank Cass.
Burckhardt,J.,1979,Reflections on History,Liberty Press.
Burkett,P.,1999,“Nature’s‘Free Gifts’and the Ecological Significance of Value”,Capital and Class,vol.23,no.2.
Burkett,P.,2005,“Marx’s Vision of Sustainable Human Development”,Monthly Review,vol.57,no.5.
Foster,J.B.,2000,Marx’s Ecology,Monthly Review Press.
Foster,J.B.,2011,“Capitalism and the Accumulation of Catastrophe”,Monthly Review,vol.63,no.7.
Foster,J.B.,2014,Marx and Nature,Haymarket.
Foster,J.B.,2015,“Late Soviet Ecology”,Monthly Review,vol.67,no.2.
Foster,J.B.,Clark,B.and York,R.,2011,The Ecological Rift,Monthly Review Press.
Golley,F.B.,1993,A History of the Ecosystem Concept in Ecology,Yale University Press.
Gorz,A.,1994,Capitalism,Socialism,Ecology,Verso.
Grundmann,R.,1991,Marxism and Ecology,Clarendon Press.
Jacoby,R.,1983,“Western Marxism”,A Dictionary of Marxist Thought,Bottomore,T.ed.,Blackwell.
Kapp,W.,1971,The Social Costs of Private Enterprise,Harvard University Press.
Lankester,E.R.,1913,Science from an Easy Chair,Henry Holt.
Levins,R.and Lewontin,R.,1985,The Dialectical Biologist,Harvard University Press.
Longo,S.B.,Clausen,R.and Clark,B.,2015,The Tragedy of the Commodity:Oceans,Fisheries and Aquaculture,Rutgers University Press.
Magdoff,F.and Foster,J.B.,2011,What Every Environmentalist Needs to Know About Capitalism,Monthly Review Press.
Margulis,L.et al.,1998,“Foreword”,The Biosphere,V.I.Vernadsky,Springer.
Marx,K.and Engels,F.,1975,Collected Works,vol.25,International Publishers.
Marx,K.and Engels,F.,1987,Collected Works,vol.42,Lawrence&Wishart.
Mayer,J.R.,1973,Prophet of Energy,R.B.Lindsey ed.,Pergamon.
Morris,W.,1986,Three Works,Lawrence and Wishart.
Mumford,L.,1973,The Condition of Man,Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Raskin,P.D.,2006,The Great Transition Today:A Report from the Future,Tellus Institute.
Rubin,I.I.,1972,Essays on Marx’s Theory of Value,Black and Red.
Schnaiberg,A.,1980,The Environment,Oxford University Press.
Schneider,M.and McMichael,P.,2010,“Deepening,and Repairing,the Metabolic Rift”,Journal of Peasant Studies,vol.37,no.3.
Shantser,E.V.,1973,Great Soviet Encyclopedia,vol.2,Macmillan.
Sweezy,P.M.,1970(originally 1942),The Theory of Capitalist Development,Monthly Review Press.
Tansley,A.G.,1935,“The Use and Abuse of Vegetational Concepts and Terms”,Ecology,vol.16,no.3.
Waring,M.,1999,Courting for Nothing,University of Toronto Press.
(1)在环境社会学视域中,将马克思主义生态危机理论称为“生产的加速机”的观点,起源于A.施耐伯格(Allan Schnaiberg),他的分析受《每月评论》中经济危机和环境危机思想的影响较为明显。(cf.Schnaiberg,1980)
(2)在马克思的理论中,价值概念最为普遍,包括使用价值和交换价值。在这个意义上,马克思认为自然(除了劳动)作为对使用价值的贡献,体现在每个商品的物质方面。但是,在资本主义条件下,会更多地看到交换价值的价值,在这个意义上,自然不直接纳入系统的价值计算或资本的构成中。(cf.Burkett,1999:89-110)
(3)资本主义收入核算的财产是排除家庭劳动的,因为它不直接影响利润和积累,因此被排除在GDP之外。不仅家政从业人员,主要还包括女性,他们的劳动被掠夺,而且家庭成为资本主义成本外在化的一种方式。生态女权主义思想家强调这与自然被排除在价值之外有相似性。(cf.Waring,1999)
(4)在劳动力方面存在类似的情况。在马克思的理论中,资本主义的生产通常要求资本向劳动者支付劳动力的价值,即再生产成本。但是,支付再生产的成本只允许资本在一定时间内使用劳动力,超过其自身再生产的成本。然而,对自然来说,资本只承担少部分再生产费用,直接掠夺自然(自然的生产条件)是常态。
(5)E.阿尔特维特(Elmar Altvater)的《市场之前景》重新解释了马克思的生态分析,这早于伯克特的《马克思与自然》。(cf.Altvater,1993)
(6)由于帝国主义的影响,部分国家或地区在人和自然新陈代谢的断裂或不平等的生态交换中,呈现出城市与农村的发展差距。因此,我们还需要继续关注这些理论,尤其是关于帝国主义的理论,比如,全球范围内新陈代谢的断裂与全球不平等的生态交换。
(7)马克思指出:“这样,封建时代的所有制的主要形式,一方面是土地所有制和束缚于土地所有制的农奴劳动,另一方面是拥有少量资本并支配着帮工劳动的自身劳动。这两种所有制的结构都是由狭隘的生产关系---小规模的粗陋的土地耕作和手工业式的工业---决定的。”(《马克思恩格斯文集》第1卷,2009:523)
(8)为解决当前的地球危机,以上的举措都可以在资本主义系统内施行,但也应该与更长期的生态和社会变革相一致。
《马克思恩格斯文集》第2卷,2009,人民出版社。
《马克思恩格斯文集》第5卷,2009,人民出版社。
《马克思恩格斯文集》第7卷,2009,人民出版社。
罗莎·卢森堡,1984,《卢森堡文选》(上卷),人民出版社。
习近平,2017,《决胜全面建成小康社会夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利---在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告》,人民出版社。
詹姆斯·奥康纳,2003,《自然的理由---生态学马克思主义研究》,唐正东、臧佩洪译,南京大学出版社。
Altvater,E.,1993,The Future of the Market,Verso.
Anderson,K.,2013,“Why Carbon Prices Can’t Deliver the 2°C Target”,August 13,http://kevinanderson.info.
Anderson,P.,1976,Considerations on Western Marxism,New Left Books.
Angus,I.,2015,“When Did the Anthropocene Begin…and Why Does it Matter?”Monthly Review,vol.67,no.4.
Benton,T.,1989,“Marxism and Natural Limits”,New Left Review,vol.178,no.5.
Bhandari,R.,2015,“Marxian Economics:The Oldest Systems Theory is New Again(or Always)?”April 9,http://ineteconomics.org.
Bukharin,N.et al.,1971,Science at the Crossroads,Frank Cass.
Burckhardt,J.,1979,Reflections on History,Liberty Press.
Burkett,P.,1999,“Nature’s‘Free Gifts’and the Ecological Significance of Value”,Capital and Class,vol.23,no.2.
Burkett,P.,2005,“Marx’s Vision of Sustainable Human Development”,Monthly Review,vol.57,no.5.
Foster,J.B.,2000,Marx’s Ecology,Monthly Review Press.
Foster,J.B.,2011,“Capitalism and the Accumulation of Catastrophe”,Monthly Review,vol.63,no.7.
Foster,J.B.,2014,Marx and Nature,Haymarket.
Foster,J.B.,2015,“Late Soviet Ecology”,Monthly Review,vol.67,no.2.
Foster,J.B.,Clark,B.and York,R.,2011,The Ecological Rift,Monthly Review Press.
Golley,F.B.,1993,A History of the Ecosystem Concept in Ecology,Yale University Press.
Gorz,A.,1994,Capitalism,Socialism,Ecology,Verso.
Grundmann,R.,1991,Marxism and Ecology,Clarendon Press.
Jacoby,R.,1983,“Western Marxism”,A Dictionary of Marxist Thought,Bottomore,T.ed.,Blackwell.
Kapp,W.,1971,The Social Costs of Private Enterprise,Harvard University Press.
Lankester,E.R.,1913,Science from an Easy Chair,Henry Holt.
Levins,R.and Lewontin,R.,1985,The Dialectical Biologist,Harvard University Press.
Longo,S.B.,Clausen,R.and Clark,B.,2015,The Tragedy of the Commodity:Oceans,Fisheries and Aquaculture,Rutgers University Press.
Magdoff,F.and Foster,J.B.,2011,What Every Environmentalist Needs to Know About Capitalism,Monthly Review Press.
Margulis,L.et al.,1998,“Foreword”,The Biosphere,V.I.Vernadsky,Springer.
Marx,K.and Engels,F.,1975,Collected Works,vol.25,International Publishers.
Marx,K.and Engels,F.,1987,Collected Works,vol.42,Lawrence&Wishart.
Mayer,J.R.,1973,Prophet of Energy,R.B.Lindsey ed.,Pergamon.
Morris,W.,1986,Three Works,Lawrence and Wishart.
Mumford,L.,1973,The Condition of Man,Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Raskin,P.D.,2006,The Great Transition Today:A Report from the Future,Tellus Institute.
Rubin,I.I.,1972,Essays on Marx’s Theory of Value,Black and Red.
Schnaiberg,A.,1980,The Environment,Oxford University Press.
Schneider,M.and McMichael,P.,2010,“Deepening,and Repairing,the Metabolic Rift”,Journal of Peasant Studies,vol.37,no.3.
Shantser,E.V.,1973,Great Soviet Encyclopedia,vol.2,Macmillan.
Sweezy,P.M.,1970(originally 1942),The Theory of Capitalist Development,Monthly Review Press.
Tansley,A.G.,1935,“The Use and Abuse of Vegetational Concepts and Terms”,Ecology,vol.16,no.3.
Waring,M.,1999,Courting for Nothing,University of Toronto Press.
(1)在环境社会学视域中,将马克思主义生态危机理论称为“生产的加速机”的观点,起源于A.施耐伯格(Allan Schnaiberg),他的分析受《每月评论》中经济危机和环境危机思想的影响较为明显。(cf.Schnaiberg,1980)
(2)在马克思的理论中,价值概念最为普遍,包括使用价值和交换价值。在这个意义上,马克思认为自然(除了劳动)作为对使用价值的贡献,体现在每个商品的物质方面。但是,在资本主义条件下,会更多地看到交换价值的价值,在这个意义上,自然不直接纳入系统的价值计算或资本的构成中。(cf.Burkett,1999:89-110)
(3)资本主义收入核算的财产是排除家庭劳动的,因为它不直接影响利润和积累,因此被排除在GDP之外。不仅家政从业人员,主要还包括女性,他们的劳动被掠夺,而且家庭成为资本主义成本外在化的一种方式。生态女权主义思想家强调这与自然被排除在价值之外有相似性。(cf.Waring,1999)
(4)在劳动力方面存在类似的情况。在马克思的理论中,资本主义的生产通常要求资本向劳动者支付劳动力的价值,即再生产成本。但是,支付再生产的成本只允许资本在一定时间内使用劳动力,超过其自身再生产的成本。然而,对自然来说,资本只承担少部分再生产费用,直接掠夺自然(自然的生产条件)是常态。
(5)E.阿尔特维特(Elmar Altvater)的《市场之前景》重新解释了马克思的生态分析,这早于伯克特的《马克思与自然》。(cf.Altvater,1993)
(6)由于帝国主义的影响,部分国家或地区在人和自然新陈代谢的断裂或不平等的生态交换中,呈现出城市与农村的发展差距。因此,我们还需要继续关注这些理论,尤其是关于帝国主义的理论,比如,全球范围内新陈代谢的断裂与全球不平等的生态交换。
(7)马克思指出:“这样,封建时代的所有制的主要形式,一方面是土地所有制和束缚于土地所有制的农奴劳动,另一方面是拥有少量资本并支配着帮工劳动的自身劳动。这两种所有制的结构都是由狭隘的生产关系---小规模的粗陋的土地耕作和手工业式的工业---决定的。”(《马克思恩格斯文集》第1卷,2009:523)
(8)为解决当前的地球危机,以上的举措都可以在资本主义系统内施行,但也应该与更长期的生态和社会变革相一致。