Review on simulation of land-surface processes on the Tibetan Plateau
|
摘要
The Tibetan Plateau(TP) has powerful dynamics and thermal effects, which makes the interaction between its land and atmosphere significantly affect climate and environment in the regional or global area. By retrospecting the latest research progress in the simulation of land-surface processes(LSPs) over the past 20 years, this study discusses both the simulation ability of land-surface models(LSMs) and the modification of parameterization schemes from two perspectives, the models' applicability and improved parameterization schemes. Our review suggests that different LSMs can well capture the spatiotemporal variations of the physical quantities of LSPs; but none of them can be fully applied to the plateau, meaning that all need to be revised according to the characteristics specific to the TP. Avoiding the unstable iterative computation and determining the freeze-thaw critical temperature according to the thermodynamic equilibrium equation, the unreasonable freeze-thaw parameterization scheme can be improved. Due to the complex underlying surface of the TP, no parameterization scheme of roughness length can well simulate the various characteristics of the turbulent flux over the TP at different temporal scales. The uniform soil thermodynamic and hydraulic parameterization scheme is unreasonable when it is applied to the plateau, as a result of the strong soil heterogeneity. There is little research on the snow-cover process so far,and the improved scheme has no advantage over the original one due to the lack of some related physical processes. The constant interaction among subprocesses of LSPs makes the improvement of a multiparameterization scheme yield better simulation results. According to the review of existing research, adding high-quality observation stations, developing a parameterization scheme suitable for the special LSPs of the TP, and adjusting the model structures can be helpful to the simulation of LSPs on the TP.
The Tibetan Plateau(TP) has powerful dynamics and thermal effects, which makes the interaction between its land and atmosphere significantly affect climate and environment in the regional or global area. By retrospecting the latest research progress in the simulation of land-surface processes(LSPs) over the past 20 years, this study discusses both the simulation ability of land-surface models(LSMs) and the modification of parameterization schemes from two perspectives, the models' applicability and improved parameterization schemes. Our review suggests that different LSMs can well capture the spatiotemporal variations of the physical quantities of LSPs; but none of them can be fully applied to the plateau, meaning that all need to be revised according to the characteristics specific to the TP. Avoiding the unstable iterative computation and determining the freeze-thaw critical temperature according to the thermodynamic equilibrium equation, the unreasonable freeze-thaw parameterization scheme can be improved. Due to the complex underlying surface of the TP, no parameterization scheme of roughness length can well simulate the various characteristics of the turbulent flux over the TP at different temporal scales. The uniform soil thermodynamic and hydraulic parameterization scheme is unreasonable when it is applied to the plateau, as a result of the strong soil heterogeneity. There is little research on the snow-cover process so far,and the improved scheme has no advantage over the original one due to the lack of some related physical processes. The constant interaction among subprocesses of LSPs makes the improvement of a multiparameterization scheme yield better simulation results. According to the review of existing research, adding high-quality observation stations, developing a parameterization scheme suitable for the special LSPs of the TP, and adjusting the model structures can be helpful to the simulation of LSPs on the TP.
The Tibetan Plateau(TP) has powerful dynamics and thermal effects, which makes the interaction between its land and atmosphere significantly affect climate and environment in the regional or global area. By retrospecting the latest research progress in the simulation of land-surface processes(LSPs) over the past 20 years, this study discusses both the simulation ability of land-surface models(LSMs) and the modification of parameterization schemes from two perspectives, the models' applicability and improved parameterization schemes. Our review suggests that different LSMs can well capture the spatiotemporal variations of the physical quantities of LSPs; but none of them can be fully applied to the plateau, meaning that all need to be revised according to the characteristics specific to the TP. Avoiding the unstable iterative computation and determining the freeze-thaw critical temperature according to the thermodynamic equilibrium equation, the unreasonable freeze-thaw parameterization scheme can be improved. Due to the complex underlying surface of the TP, no parameterization scheme of roughness length can well simulate the various characteristics of the turbulent flux over the TP at different temporal scales. The uniform soil thermodynamic and hydraulic parameterization scheme is unreasonable when it is applied to the plateau, as a result of the strong soil heterogeneity. There is little research on the snow-cover process so far,and the improved scheme has no advantage over the original one due to the lack of some related physical processes. The constant interaction among subprocesses of LSPs makes the improvement of a multiparameterization scheme yield better simulation results. According to the review of existing research, adding high-quality observation stations, developing a parameterization scheme suitable for the special LSPs of the TP, and adjusting the model structures can be helpful to the simulation of LSPs on the TP.
引文
Albergel C,De Rosnay P,Balsamo G,et al.,2012.Soil mois‐ture analyses at ECMWF:Evaluation using global groundbased in situ observations.Journal of Hydrometeorology,13(5):1442-1460.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-11-0107.1.
Baker IT,Sellers PJ,Denning AS,et al.,2017.Closing the scale gap between land surface parameterizations and GC‐Ms with a new scheme,SiB3-Bins.Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems,9(1):691-711.DOI:10.1002/2016MS000764.
Bao HY,Koike T,Yang K,et al.,2016.Development of an en‐thalpy-based frozen soil model and its validation in a cold region in China.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmo‐spheres,121(10):5259-5280.DOI:10.1002/2015JD024451.
Bi HY,Ma JW,Zhang WJ,et al.,2016.Comparison of soil moisture in GLDAS model simulations and in situ observa‐tions over the Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Geophysical Re‐search-Atmospheres,121(6):2658-2678.DOI:10.1002/2015JD024131.
Boike J,Georgi C,Kirilin G,et al.,2015.Thermal processes of thermokarst lakes in the continuous permafrost zone of northern Siberia observations and modeling(Lena River Delta,Siberia).Biogeosciences,12(20):5941-5965.DOI:10.5194/bg-12-5941-2015.
Brutsaert WH,1982.Evaporation into the Atmosphere:Theory,History,and Applications.D.Reidel Press,Dordrecht Neth‐erlands.
Charney J,Quirk WJ,Chow SH,et al.,1977.A Comparative study of effects of albedo change on drought in semi-arid regions.Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences,34(9):1366-1385.DOI:10.1175/1520-0469(1977)034<1366:ACSOTE>2.0.CO;2.
Charney JG,1975.Dynamics of deserts and drought in the Sa‐hel.Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society,101(428):193-202.DOI:10.1002/qj.49710142802.
Chase TN,Pielke RA,Kittel TGF,et al.,1996.Sensitivity of a general circulation model to global changes in leaf area in‐dex.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,101(D3):7393-7408.DOI:10.1029/95JD02417.
Chen BL,Luo SQ,Lv SH,et al.,2014.Simulation and im‐provement of soil temperature and moisture at Zoige sta‐tion in Source Region of the Yellow River during freezing and thawing.Plateau Meteorology,33(2):337-345.DOI:10.7522/j.issn.1000-0534.2013.00085.(in Chinese)
Chen F,Zhang Y,2009.On the coupling strength between the land surface and the atmosphere:From viewpoint of sur‐face exchange coefficients.Geophysical Research Letters,36:L10404.DOI:10.1029/2009GL037980.
Chen H,Nan ZT,Zhao L,et al.,2015.Noah Modelling of the permafrost distribution and characteristics in the West Kun‐lun Area,Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,China.Permafrost and Periglacial Processes,26(2):160-174.DOI:10.1002/ppp.1841.
Chen JF,Gao XG,Zheng XQ,et al.,2019.Simulation of soil freezing and thawing for different groundwater table depths.Vadose Zone Journal,18(1):180157.DOI:10.2136/vzj2018.08.0157.
Chen XL,Su ZB,Ma YM,et al.,2013a.An improvement of roughness height parameterization of the surface energy balance system(SEBS)over the Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,52(3):607-622.DOI:10.1175/JAMC-D-12-056.1.
Chen YY,Yang K,He J,et al.,2011.Improving land surface temperature modeling for dry land of China.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,116:D20104.DOI:10.1029/2011JD015921.
Chen YY,Yang K,Qin J,et al.,2013b.Evaluation of AMSR-Eretrievals and GLDAS simulations against observations of a soil moisture network on the central Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,118(10):4466-4475.DOI:10.1002/jgrd.50301.
Chen YY,Yang K,Tang WJ,et al.,2012.Parameterizing soil or‐ganic carbon's impacts on soil porosity and thermal parame‐ters for Eastern Tibet grasslands.Science China:Earth Sci‐ences,55(6):1001-1011.DOI:10.1007/s11430-012-44 33-0.
Chen YY,Yang K,Zhou DG,et al.,2010.Improving the Noah land surface model in arid regions with an appropriate pa‐rameterization of the thermal roughness length.Journal of Hydrometeorology,11(4):995-1006.DOI:10.1175/2010JHM1185.1.
Clapp RB,Hornberger GM,1978.Empirical equations for some soil hydraulic properties.Water Resources Research,14(4):601-604.DOI:10.1029/WR014i004p00601.
Collatz GJ,Bounoua L,Los SO,et al.,2000.A mechanism for the influence of vegetation on the response of the diurnal temperature range to changing climate.Geophysical Re‐search Letters,27(20):3381-3384.DOI:10.1029/1999GL010947.
Cote J,Konrad JM,2005.Thermal conductivity of base-course materials.Canadian Geotechnical Journal,42(1):61-78.DOI:10.1139/T04-081.
D'Odorico P,Porporato A,2004.Preferential states in soil moisture and climate dynamics.Proceedings of the Nation‐al Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,101(24):8848-8851.DOI:10.1073/pnas.0401428101.
Dai YJ,Zeng XB,Dickinson RE,et al.,2003.The Common land model.Bulletin of the American Meteorological Soci‐ety,84(8):1013-1023.DOI:10.1175/BAMS-84-8-1013.
Dickinson RE,1995.Land atmosphere interaction.Reviews of Geophysics,33(S2):917-922.DOI:10.1029/95RG00284.
Dickinson RE,Henderson-Sellers A,Rosenzweig C,et al.,1991.Evapotranspiration models with canopy resistance for use in climate models-A Review.Agricultural and For‐est Meteorology,54(2-4):373-388.DOI:10.1016/0168-1923(91)90014-H.
Entin JK,Robock A,Vinnikov KY,et al.,2000.Temporal and spatial scales of observed soil moisture variations in the ex‐tratropics.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,105(D9):11865-11877.DOI:10.1029/2000JD900051.
Farouki OT,1981.The thermal properties of soils in cold re‐gions.Cold Regions Science and Technology,5(1):67-75.DOI:10.1016/0165-232X(81)90041-0.
Franz D,Mammarella I,Boike J,et al.,2018.Lake-atmo‐sphere heat flux dynamics of a thermokarst lake in Arctic Siberia.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,123:5222-5239.DOI:10.1029/2017JD027751.
Gao YH,Li K,Chen F,et al.,2015.Assessing and improving Noah-MP land model simulations for the central Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,120(18):9258-9278.DOI:10.1002/2015JD023404.
Gao YH,Xiao LH,Chen DL,et al.,2017.Quantification of the relative role of land-surface processes and large-scale forc‐ing in dynamic downscaling over the Tibetan Plateau.Cli‐mate Dynamics,48(5-6):1705-1721.DOI:10.1007/s00382-016-3168-6.
Gao ZQ,Chae N,Kim J,et al.,2004.Modeling of surface ener‐gy partitioning,surface temperature,and soil wetness in the Tibetan prairie using the Simple Biosphere Model 2(SiB2).Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,109(D6):D06102.DOI:10.1029/2003JD004089.
Guo DL,Yang MX,2010.Simulation of soil temperature and moisture in seasonally frozen ground of Central Tibetan Plateau by SHAW model.Plateau Meteorology,29(6):1369-1377.(in Chinese)
Hong J,Kim J,2010.Numerical study of surface energy parti‐tioning on the Tibetan plateau:comparative analysis of two biosphere models.Biogeosciences,7(2):557-568.DOI:10.5194/bg-7-557-2010.
Immerzeel WW,Van Beek LPH,Bierkens MFP,2010.Climate change will affect the Asian water towers.Science,328(5984):1382-1385.DOI:10.1126/science.1183188.
Ji P,Yuan X,Liang XZ,2017.Do lateral flows matter for the hyperresolution land surface modeling?Journal of Geo‐physical Research-Atmospheres,122(22):12077-12092.DOI:10.1002/2017JD027366.
Johansen O,1975.Thermal conductivity of soil.PhD Thesis,University of Trondheim,Norway.
Kanda M,Kanega M,Kawai T,et al.,2007.Roughness lengths for momentum and heat derived from outdoor urban scale models.Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,46(7):1067-1079.DOI:10.1175/JAM2500.1.
Kang SC,Xu YW,You QL,et al.,2010.Review of climate and cryospheric change in the Tibetan Plateau.Environmental Research Letters,5(1):015101.DOI:10.1088/1748-9326/5/1/015101.
Koster RD,Dirmeyer PA,Guo ZC,et al.,2004.Regions of strong coupling between soil moisture and precipitation.Science,305(5687):1138-1140.DOI:10.1126/science.1100217.
Krakauer NY,Puma MJ,Cook BI,2013.Impacts of soil-aqui‐fer heat and water fluxes on simulated global climate.Hy‐drology and Earth System Sciences,17(5):1963-1974.DOI:10.5194/hess-17-1963-2013.
Langer M,Westermann S,Anthony KW,et al.,2015.Frozen ponds:production and storage of methane during the Arctic winter in a lowland tundra landscape in northern Siberia,Lena River Delta.Biogeosciences,12:977-990.
Langer M,Westermann S,Boike J,et al.,2016.Rapid degrada‐tion of permafrost underneath waterbodies in tundra land‐scapes-Towards a representation of thermokarst in land sur‐face models.Journal of Geophysical Research-Earth Sur‐face,121(12):2446-2470.DOI:10.1002/2016JF003956.
Lawrence DM,Slater AG,2008.Incorporating organic soil in‐to a global climate model.Climate Dynamics,30(2-3):145-160.DOI:10.1007/s00382-007-0278-1.
Li Q,Sun SF,2006.Development of frozen soil model.Ad‐vances in Earth Science,21(12):1339-1349.DOI:10.11867/j.issn.1001-8166.2006.12.1339.(in Chinese)
Li Q,Sun SF,2007.Development of the university and simpli‐fied soil model coupling heat and water transport.Science China:Earth Sciences,37(11):1522-1535.DOI:10.1360/zd2007-37-11-1522.(in Chinese)
Li Q,Sun SF,Xue YK,2010.Analyses and development of a hierarchy of frozen soil models for cold region study.Jour‐nal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres115:D03107.DOI:10.1029/2009JD012530.
Li R,Zhao L,Ding YJ,et al.,2013.Study on soil thermody‐namic characteristics at different underlying surface in northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.Acta Energiae Solaris Si‐nica,34(6):1076-1084.(in Chinese)
Li X,Cheng GD,Jin HJ,et al.,2008.Cryospheric change in China.Global and Planetary Change,62(3-4):210-218.DOI:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2008.02.001.
Li X,Koike T,2003.Frozen soil parameterization in SiB2 and its validation with GAME-Tibet observations.Cold Re‐gions Science and Technology,36(1-3):165-182.DOI:10.1016/S0165-232X(03)00009-0.
Li Y,Sun R,Liu SM,2015.Vegetation physiological parameter setting in the Simple Biosphere model 2(SiB2)for alpine meadows in the upper reaches of Heihe river.Science Chi‐na-Earth Science,58(5):755-769.DOI:10.1007/s11430-014-4909-1.
Liu HL,Hu ZY,Cheng S,et al.,2016.Simulation of the land surface processes over the central Tibetan Plateau based on Noah-LSM and CoLM.Journal of Glaciology and Geocry‐ology,38(6):1501-1509.DOI:10.7522/j.issn.1000-0240.2016.0175.
Liu L,Ma YM,Menenti M,et al.,2019.Evaluation of WRFmodeling in relation to different land surface schemes and initial and boundary conditions:a snow event simulation over the Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Geophysical ResearchAtmospheres,124(1):209-226.DOI:10.1029/2018JD029208.
Luo SQ,Fang XW,Lv SH,et al.,2017.Improving CLM4.5simulations of land-atmosphere exchange during freezethaw processes on the Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Meteoro‐logical Research,31(5):916-930.DOI:10.1007/s13351-017-6063-0.
Luo SQ,Lv SH,Zhang Y,2009a.Development and validation of the frozen soil parameterization scheme in Common Land Model.Cold Regions Science and Technology,55(1):130-140.DOI:10.1016/j.coldregions.2008.07.009.
Luo SQ,Lv SH,Zhang Y,et al.,2009b.Soil thermal conductiv‐ity parameterization establishment and application in nu‐merical model of central Tibetan Plateau.Chinese Journal of Geophysics,52(4):919-928.DOI:10.3969/j.issn.001-5733.2009.04.008.
Ma HY,Xiao H,Mechoso CR,et al.,2013.Sensitivity of glob‐al tropical climate to land surface processes:mean state and inter annual variability.Journal of Climate,26(5):1818-1837.DOI:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00142.1.
Ma Q,Liu X,Li WP,et al.,2014.Simulation of thermal and hydraulic properties affected by organic and gravel soil over the Tibetan Plateau during summer.Chinese Journal of Atmospheric Sciences,38(2):337-351.DOI:10.3878/j.issn.1006-9895.2013.13119.
Ma SB,Zhou LB,2017.Characteristics of land-air exchange parameters over grassland in southeast Tibet.Journal of Hy‐drometeorology,18(8):2249-2264.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-16-0084.1.
Ma YM,Kang SC,Zhu LP,et al.,2008.Tibetan observation and research platform atmosphere-land interaction over a heterogeneous landscape.Bulletin of the American Meteo‐rological Society,89(10):1487-1492.DOI:10.1175/2008BAMS2545.1.
Ma YM,Ma WQ,Zhong L,et al.,2017.Monitoring and mod‐eling the Tibetan Plateau's climate system and its impact on East Asia.Scientific Reports,7:44574.DOI:10.1038/srep44574.
Ma YM,Wang Y,Wu R,et al.,2009b.Recent advances on the study of atmosphere-land interaction observations on the Tibetan Plateau.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences,13(7):1103-1111.DOI:10.5194/hess-13-1103-2009.
Ma YM,Yao TD,Hu ZY,et al.,2009a.The cooperative study on energy and water cycle over the Tibetan Plateau.Ad‐vances in Earth Science,24(11):1280-1284.(in Chinese)
Ma YM,Yao TD,Wang JM,2006.Experimental study of ener‐gy and water cycle in Tibetan Plateau-The progress intro‐duction on the study of GAME-Tibet and CAMP-Tibet.Plateau Meteorology,25(2):344-351.(in Chinese)
Niu GY,Yang ZL,2006.Effects of frozen soil on snowmelt runoff and soil water storage at a continental scale.Journal of Hydrometeorology,7(5):937-952.DOI:10.1175/JHM538.1.
Niu GY,Yang ZL,2007.An observation-based formulation of snow cover fraction and its evaluation over large north American river basins.Journal Geophysical Research-Atmo‐spheres,112(D21):D21101.DOI:10.1029/2007JD00 8674.
Niu GY,Yang ZL,Mitchell KE,et al.,2011.The community Noah land surface model with multiparameterization op‐tions(Noah-MP):1.Model description and evaluation with local-scale measurements.Journal Geophysical ResearchAtmospheres,116:D12109.DOI:10.1029/2010JD015139.
Owen PR,Thomson WR,1963.Heat transfer across rough sur‐faces.Journal of Fluid Mechanics,15(3):321-334.DOI:10.1017/S0022112063000288.
Pan BT,Li JJ,1996.Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau:A driver and am‐plifier of the global climate change III.The effects of the uplift of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau on Climatic Changes.Journal of Lanzhou University(Natural Sciences),32(1):108-115.(in Chinese)
Pan YJ,Lv SH,Li SS,et al.,2017.Simulating the role of grav‐el in freeze-thaw process on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.Theoretical and Applied Climatology,127(3-4):1011-1022.DOI:10.1007/s00704-015-1684-7.
Peters-Lidard CD,Blackburn E,Liang X,et al.,1998.The ef‐fect of soil thermal conductivity parameterization on sur‐face energy fluxes and temperatures.Journal of the Atmo‐spheric Sciences,55(7):1209-1224.DOI:10.1175/1520-0469(1998)055<1209:TEOSTC>2.0.CO;2.
Peylin P,Polcher J,Bonan G,et al.,1997.Comparison of two complex land surface schemes coupled to the National Cen‐ter for Atmospheric Research general circulation model.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,102(D16):19413-19431.DOI:10.1029/97JD00489.
Qiu J,2008.The third pole.Nature,454(7203):393-396.DOI:10.1038/454393a.
Ren XQ,Sun SF,Chen W,et al.,2013.A review of researches on the lake numerical modeling.Advances in Earth Sci‐ence,28(3):347-356.DOI:10.11867/j.issn.1001-8166.2013.03.0347.(in Chinese)
Sellers PJ,Dickinson RE,Randall DA,et al.,1997.Modeling the exchanges of energy,water,and carbon between conti‐nents and the atmosphere.Science,275(5299):502-509.DOI:10.1126/science.275.5299.502.
Seneviratne SI,Corti T,Davin EL,et al.,2010.Investigation soil moisture-climate interactions in a changing climate:Areview.Earth Science Reviews,99(3-4):125-161.DOI:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.02.004.
Sheppard PA,1958.Transfer across the earth's surface and through the air above.Quarterly Journal of the Royal Mete‐orological Society,84(361):205-224.DOI:10.1002/qj.49708436102.
Shukla J,Mintz Y,1982.Influence of land surface evapotrans‐piration on the earth's climate.Science,215(4539):1498-1501.DOI:10.1126/science.215.4539.1498.
Sud YC,Shukla J,Mintz Y,1988.Influence of land surface roughness on atmospheric circulation and precipitation-Asensitivity study with a general circulation model.Journal of Applied Meteorology,27(9):1036-1054.DOI:10.1175/1520-0450(1988)027<1036:IOLSRO>2.0.CO;2.
Sud YC,Smith WE,1985a.Influence of local land surface pro‐cesses on the Indian monsoon-A Numerical study.Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology,24(10):1015-1036.DOI:10.1175/1520-0450(1985)024<1015:IOLLSP>2.0.CO;2.
Sud YC,Smith WE,1985b.The Influence of surface rough‐ness of deserts on the July circulation(A numerical study).Boundary-Layer Meteorology,33(1):15-49.DOI:10.1007/BF00137034.
Sun SB,Chen BZ,Chen J,et al.,2016a.Comparison of re‐motely-sensed and modeled soil moisture using CLM4.0with in situ measurements in the central Tibetan Plateau ar‐ea.Cold Regions Science and Technology,129:31-44.DOI:10.1016/j.coldregions.2016.06.005.
Sun SB,Chen BZ,Ge MY,et al.,2016b.Improving soil organ‐ic carbon parameterization of land surface model for cold regions in the Northeastern Tibetan Plateau,China.Ecolog‐ical Modelling,330:1-15.DOI:10.1016/j.ecolmod‐el.2016.03.014.
Sun SF,2005.Parameterization Study of Physical and Bio‐chemical Mechanism in Land Surface Process.Beijing:China Meteorology Press.(in Chinese)
Swenson SC,Lawrence DM,2012b.A new fractional snowcovered area parameterization for the community land mod‐el and its effect on the surface energy balance.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,117:D21107.DOI:10.1029/2012JD018178.
Swenson SC,Lawrence DM,Lee H,2012a.Improved simula‐tion of the terrestrial hydrological cycle in permafrost re‐gions by the Community Land Model.Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems,4:M08002.DOI:10.1029/2012MS000165.
Takayabu I,Takata K,Yamazali T,et al.,2001.Comparison of the four land surface models driven by a common forcing data prepared from GAME/Tibet POP'97 products-Snow accumulation and soil freezing processes.Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan,79(1B):535-554.DOI:10.2151/jmsj.79.535.
Van der Velde R,Su Z,Ek M,et al.,2009.Influence of thermo‐dynamic soil and vegetation parameterizations on the simu‐lation of soil temperature states and surface fluxes by the Noah LSM over a Tibetan plateau site.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences,13(6):759-777.DOI:10.5194/hess-13-759-2009.
Van Genuchten MT,1980.A closed-form equation for predict‐ing the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.Soil Sci‐ence Society of America Journal,44(5):892-898.DOI:10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x.
Wang CH,Yang K,2018.A new scheme for considering soil water-heat transport coupling based on community land model:model description and preliminary validation.Jour‐nal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems,10(4):927-950.DOI:10.1002/2017MS001148.
Wang L,Zhou J,Qin J,et al.,2017.Development of a land sur‐face model with coupled snow and frozen soil physics.Wa‐ter Resources Research,53(6):5085-5103.DOI:10.1002/2017WR020451.
Wang XJ,Pang GJ,Yang MX,2018.Precipitation over the Ti‐betan Plateau during recent decades:a review based on ob‐servations and simulations.International Journal of Clima‐tology,38(3):1116-1131.DOI:10.1002/joc.5246.
Wang XJ,Pang GJ,Yang MX,et al.,2016.Effects of modified soil water-heat physics on RegCM4 simulations of climate over the Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Geophysical ResearchAtmospheres,121(12):6692-6712.DOI:10.1002/2015JD024407.
Wang XJ,Yang MX,Pang GJ,et al.,2015.Simulation and im‐provement of land surface processes in Nameqie,Central Tibetan Plateau,using the Community Land Model(CLM3.5).Environment Earth Sciences,73(11):7343-7357.DOI:10.1007/s12665-014-3911-4.
Wood EF,1991.Land Surface-Atmosphere Interactions for Climate Modeling.Dordrecht:Kluwer Academic Publish‐ers,pp.85-126,155-178.
Wu GX,Duan AM,Liu YM,et al.,2015.Tibetan Plateau cli‐mate dynamics:recent research progress and outlook.Na‐tional Science Review,2(1):100-116.DOI:10.1093/nsr/nwu045.
Wu GX,He B,Liu YM,et al.,2016.Recent progresses on dy‐namics of the Tibetan Plateau and Asian Summer Mon‐soon.Chinese Journal of Atmospheric Sciences,40(1):22-32.DOI:10.3878/j.issn.1006-9895.1504.15129.
Xia K,Luo Y,Li WP,2011.Simulation of freezing and melting of soil on the northeast Tibetan Plateau.Chinese Science Bulletin,56(20):2145-2155.DOI:10.1007/s11434-011-4542-8.
Xiao Y,Zhao L,Dai YJ,et al.,2013.Representing permafrost properties in CoLM for the Qinghai-Xizang(Tibetan)Pla‐teau.Cold Regions Science and Technology,87:68-77.DOI:10.1016/j.coldregions.2012.12.004.
Xie ZP,Hu ZY,Xie ZH,et al.,2018.Impact of the snow cover scheme on snow distribution and energy budget modeling over the Tibetan Plateau.Theoretical and Applied Climatolo‐gy,131(3-4):951-965.DOI:10.1007/s00704-016-2020-6.
Xu XD,Chen LS,2006.Advances of the study on Tibetan Pla‐teau experiment of atmospheric sciences.Journal of Ap‐plied Meteorological Science,17(6):756-772.(in Chinese)
Xu XD,Lu CG,Shi XH,et al.,2008a.World water tower:An atmospheric perspective.Geophysical Research Letters,35(20):L20815.DOI:10.1029/2008GL035867.
Xu XD,Zhang RH,Koike T,et al.,2008b.A new integrated observational system over the Tibetan Plateau.Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,89(10):1492-1496.DOI:10.1175/2008BAMS2557.1.
Xue YK,Shukla J,1993.The Influence of land surface proper‐ties on Sahel Climate.Part I:Desertification.Journal of Cli‐mate,6(12):2232-2245.DOI:10.1175/1520-0442(1993)006<2232:TIOLSP>2.0.CO;2.
Xue YK,Shukla J,1996.The Influence of land surface proper‐ties on Sahel Climate.Part II:Afforestation.Journal of Cli‐mate,9(12):3260-3275.DOI:10.1175/1520-0442(1996)009<3260:TIOLSP>2.0.CO;2.
Yang K,Chen YY,Qin J,2009.Some practical notes on the land surface modeling in the Tibetan Plateau.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences,13(5):687-701.DOI:10.5194/hess-13-687-2009.
Yang K,Koike T,Ishikawa H,et al.,2008.Turbulent flux transfer over bare-soil surfaces:Characteristics and parame‐terization.Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatolo‐gy,47(1):276-290.DOI:10.1175/2007JAMC1547.1.
Yang K,Koike T,Ye BS,et al.,2005.Inverse analysis of the role of soil vertical heterogeneity in controlling surface soil state and energy partition.Journal of Geophysical Re‐search-Atmospheres,110(D8):D08101.DOI:10.1029/2004JD005500.
Yang K,Qin J,Zhao L,et al.,2013.A multiscale soil mois‐ture and freeze-thaw monitoring network on the third pole.Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,94(12):1907-1916.DOI:10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00203.1.
Yang K,Rasmy M,Rauniyar S,et al.,2007.Initial CEOP-based review of the prediction skill of operational general circulation models and land surface models.Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan,85A:99-116.DOI:10.2151/jmsj.85A.99.
Yang K,Wang CH,Li SY,2018.Improved simulation of fro‐zen-thawing process in land surface model(CLM4.5).Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,123(23):13238-13258.DOI:10.1029/2017JD028260.
Yang K,Wu H,Qin J,et al.,2014.Recent climate changes over the Tibetan Plateau and their impacts on energy and water cycle:A review.Global and Planetary Change,112:79-91.DOI:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2013.12.001.
Yang MX,Wang XJ,Pang GJ,et al.,2019.The Tibetan Pla‐teau cryosphere:Observations and model simulations for current status and recent changes.Earth-Sciences Reviews,190:353-369.DOI:10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.12.018.
Yang MX,Yao TD,Gou XH,et al.,2007a.The spatially het‐erogeneous distribution of precipitation of the Anduo area,Tibetan Plateau,in summer 1998.Hydrological Sciences Journal-Journal Des Sciences Hydeologiques,52(4):645-653.DOI:10.1623/hysj.52.4.645
Yang MX,Yao TD,Gou XH,et al.,2007b.Water recycling be‐tween the land surface and atmosphere on the northern Ti‐betan Plateau-A case study at flat observation sites.Arctic,Antarctic and Alpine Research,39(4):694-698.DOI:10.1657/1523-0430(07-509)[YANG]2.0.CO;2.
Yao TD,Thompson L,Yang W,et al.,2012.Different glacier status with atmospheric circulations in Tibetan Plateau and surroundings.Nature Climate Change,2(9):663-667.DOI:10.1038/NCLIMATE1580.
Yao TD,Wu FY,Ding L,et al.,2015.Multispherical interac‐tions and their effects on the Tibetan Plateau's earth sys‐tem:a review of the recent researches.National Science Re‐view,2(4):468-488.DOI:10.1093/nsr/nwv070.
Ye DZ,Gao YX,1979.The Meteorology of the Qinghai-Xi‐zang(Tibet)Plateau.Beijing:Science Press.(in Chinese)
Ye DZ,Zeng QC,Guo YF,1991.Current Research in Climate.Beijing:Meteorological Press.(in Chinese)
You QL,Min JZ,Zhang W,et al.,2015.Comparison of multi‐ple datasets with gridded precipitation observations over the Tibetan Plateau.Climate Dynamics,45(3-4):791-806.DOI:10.1007/s00382-014-2310-6.
Yuan X,Ji P,Wang LY,et al.,2018.High-resolution land surface modeling of hydrological changes over the sanjiangyuan re‐gion in the eastern Tibetan Plateau:1.model development and evaluation.Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Sys‐tems,10(11):2806-2828.DOI:10.1029/2018MS 001412.
Zeng XB,Dickinson RE,1998.Effect of surface sublayer on surface skin temperature and fluxes.Journal of Climate,11(4):537-550.DOI:10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011<0537:EOSSOS>2.0.CO;2.
Zeng XB,Wang Z,Wang AH,2012.Surface skin temperature and the interplay between sensible and ground heat fluxes over arid regions.Journal of Hydrometeorology,13(4):1359-1370.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-11-0117.1.
Zhan CS,Ning LK,Zhou J,et al.,2018.A review on the fully coupled atmosphere-hydrology simulations.Acta Geographi‐ca Sinica,73(5):893-905.DOI:10.11821/dlxb20180 5009.
Zhang G,Chen F,Gan YJ,2016.Assessing uncertainties in the Noah-MP ensemble simulations of a cropland site during the Tibet Joint International Cooperation program field campaign.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,121(16):9576-9596.DOI:10.1002/2016JD024928.
Zhang RH,Koike T,Xu XD,et al.,2012.A China-Japan coop‐erative JICA atmospheric observing network over the Tibet‐an Plateau(JICA/Tibet Project):An overviews.Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan,90C:1-16.DOI:10.2151/jmsj.2012-C01.
Zhang X,Sun SF,Xue YK,2006.Development and testing of a frozen soil parameterization for cold region studies.Jour‐nal of Hydrometeorology,8(4):690-701.DOI:10.1175/JHM605.1.
Zhao H,Zeng YJ,Lv SN,et al.,2018.Analysis of soil hydrau‐lic and thermal properties for land surface modeling over the Tibetan Plateau.Earth System Science Data,10(2):1031-1061.DOI:10.5194/essd-10-1031-2018.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2014.Assessment of roughness length schemes implemented within the Noah land surface model for high-altitude regions.Journal of Hydrome‐teorology,15(3):921-937.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-13-0102.1.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2015a.Under-cano‐py turbulence and root water uptake of a Tibetan meadow ecosystem modeled by Noah-MP.Water Resources Re‐search,51(7):5735-5755.DOI:10.1002/2015WR017115.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2015b.Augmenta‐tions to the Noah model physics for application to the Yel‐low River Source Area.Part I:soil water flow.Journal of Hydrometeorology,16(6):2659-2676.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-14-0198.1.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2015c.Augmenta‐tions to the Noah model physics for application to the Yel‐low River Source Area.Part II:turbulent heat fluxes and soil heat transport.Journal of Hydrometeorology,16(6):2677-2694.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-14-0199.1.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2016a.Impacts of Noah model physics on catchment-scale runoff simula‐tions.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,121(2):807-832.DOI:10.1002/2015JD023695.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2016b.Assessment of Noah land surface model with various runoff parameter‐izations over a Tibetan River.Journal of Geophysical Re‐search-Atmospheres,122(3):1488-1504.DOI:10.1002/2016JD025572.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2017.Evaluation of Noah Frozen Soil Parameterization for Application to a Ti‐betan Meadow Ecosystem.Journal of Hydrometeorology,18(6):1749-1763.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-16-0199.1.
Zheng WZ,Wei HL,Wang Z,et al.,2012.Improvement of daytime land surface skin temperature over arid regions in the NCEP GFS model and its impact on satellite data assim‐ilation.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,117,D06117.DOI:10.1029/2011JD015901.
Zhou LM,Tucker CJ,Kaufmann RK,et al.,2001.Variations in northern vegetation activity inferred from satellite data of vegetation index during 1981 to 1999.Journal of Geophysi‐cal Research-Atmospheres,106(D17):20069-20083.DOI:10.1029/2000JD000115.
Zhou YL,Sun XM,Zhu ZL,et al.,2007.Comparative research on four typical surface roughness length calculation meth‐ods.Geographical Research,26(5):887-896.DOI:10.11821/yj2007050004.(in Chinese)
Zhu ZC,Piao SL,Xu L,et al.,2017.Attribution of seasonal leaf area index trends in the northern latitudes with"opti‐mally"integrated ecosystem models.Global Change Biolo‐gy,23(11):4798-4813.DOI:10.1111/gcb.13723.
Zilitinkevich SS,1995.Non-local turbulent transport:Pollution dispersion aspects of coherent structure of convective flows,Air Pollution III,Vol.I,Air Theory and Simulation.In:Power H,Moussiopoulos N,Brebbia CA(eds.).Boston:Computational Mechanics Publications,pp:53-60.
Zou DF,Zhao L,Sheng Y,et al.,2017.A new map of perma‐frost distribution on the Tibetan Plateau.The Cryosphere,11(6):2527-2542.DOI:10.5194/tc-11-2527-2017.
Baker IT,Sellers PJ,Denning AS,et al.,2017.Closing the scale gap between land surface parameterizations and GC‐Ms with a new scheme,SiB3-Bins.Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems,9(1):691-711.DOI:10.1002/2016MS000764.
Bao HY,Koike T,Yang K,et al.,2016.Development of an en‐thalpy-based frozen soil model and its validation in a cold region in China.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmo‐spheres,121(10):5259-5280.DOI:10.1002/2015JD024451.
Bi HY,Ma JW,Zhang WJ,et al.,2016.Comparison of soil moisture in GLDAS model simulations and in situ observa‐tions over the Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Geophysical Re‐search-Atmospheres,121(6):2658-2678.DOI:10.1002/2015JD024131.
Boike J,Georgi C,Kirilin G,et al.,2015.Thermal processes of thermokarst lakes in the continuous permafrost zone of northern Siberia observations and modeling(Lena River Delta,Siberia).Biogeosciences,12(20):5941-5965.DOI:10.5194/bg-12-5941-2015.
Brutsaert WH,1982.Evaporation into the Atmosphere:Theory,History,and Applications.D.Reidel Press,Dordrecht Neth‐erlands.
Charney J,Quirk WJ,Chow SH,et al.,1977.A Comparative study of effects of albedo change on drought in semi-arid regions.Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences,34(9):1366-1385.DOI:10.1175/1520-0469(1977)034<1366:ACSOTE>2.0.CO;2.
Charney JG,1975.Dynamics of deserts and drought in the Sa‐hel.Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society,101(428):193-202.DOI:10.1002/qj.49710142802.
Chase TN,Pielke RA,Kittel TGF,et al.,1996.Sensitivity of a general circulation model to global changes in leaf area in‐dex.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,101(D3):7393-7408.DOI:10.1029/95JD02417.
Chen BL,Luo SQ,Lv SH,et al.,2014.Simulation and im‐provement of soil temperature and moisture at Zoige sta‐tion in Source Region of the Yellow River during freezing and thawing.Plateau Meteorology,33(2):337-345.DOI:10.7522/j.issn.1000-0534.2013.00085.(in Chinese)
Chen F,Zhang Y,2009.On the coupling strength between the land surface and the atmosphere:From viewpoint of sur‐face exchange coefficients.Geophysical Research Letters,36:L10404.DOI:10.1029/2009GL037980.
Chen H,Nan ZT,Zhao L,et al.,2015.Noah Modelling of the permafrost distribution and characteristics in the West Kun‐lun Area,Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,China.Permafrost and Periglacial Processes,26(2):160-174.DOI:10.1002/ppp.1841.
Chen JF,Gao XG,Zheng XQ,et al.,2019.Simulation of soil freezing and thawing for different groundwater table depths.Vadose Zone Journal,18(1):180157.DOI:10.2136/vzj2018.08.0157.
Chen XL,Su ZB,Ma YM,et al.,2013a.An improvement of roughness height parameterization of the surface energy balance system(SEBS)over the Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,52(3):607-622.DOI:10.1175/JAMC-D-12-056.1.
Chen YY,Yang K,He J,et al.,2011.Improving land surface temperature modeling for dry land of China.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,116:D20104.DOI:10.1029/2011JD015921.
Chen YY,Yang K,Qin J,et al.,2013b.Evaluation of AMSR-Eretrievals and GLDAS simulations against observations of a soil moisture network on the central Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,118(10):4466-4475.DOI:10.1002/jgrd.50301.
Chen YY,Yang K,Tang WJ,et al.,2012.Parameterizing soil or‐ganic carbon's impacts on soil porosity and thermal parame‐ters for Eastern Tibet grasslands.Science China:Earth Sci‐ences,55(6):1001-1011.DOI:10.1007/s11430-012-44 33-0.
Chen YY,Yang K,Zhou DG,et al.,2010.Improving the Noah land surface model in arid regions with an appropriate pa‐rameterization of the thermal roughness length.Journal of Hydrometeorology,11(4):995-1006.DOI:10.1175/2010JHM1185.1.
Clapp RB,Hornberger GM,1978.Empirical equations for some soil hydraulic properties.Water Resources Research,14(4):601-604.DOI:10.1029/WR014i004p00601.
Collatz GJ,Bounoua L,Los SO,et al.,2000.A mechanism for the influence of vegetation on the response of the diurnal temperature range to changing climate.Geophysical Re‐search Letters,27(20):3381-3384.DOI:10.1029/1999GL010947.
Cote J,Konrad JM,2005.Thermal conductivity of base-course materials.Canadian Geotechnical Journal,42(1):61-78.DOI:10.1139/T04-081.
D'Odorico P,Porporato A,2004.Preferential states in soil moisture and climate dynamics.Proceedings of the Nation‐al Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,101(24):8848-8851.DOI:10.1073/pnas.0401428101.
Dai YJ,Zeng XB,Dickinson RE,et al.,2003.The Common land model.Bulletin of the American Meteorological Soci‐ety,84(8):1013-1023.DOI:10.1175/BAMS-84-8-1013.
Dickinson RE,1995.Land atmosphere interaction.Reviews of Geophysics,33(S2):917-922.DOI:10.1029/95RG00284.
Dickinson RE,Henderson-Sellers A,Rosenzweig C,et al.,1991.Evapotranspiration models with canopy resistance for use in climate models-A Review.Agricultural and For‐est Meteorology,54(2-4):373-388.DOI:10.1016/0168-1923(91)90014-H.
Entin JK,Robock A,Vinnikov KY,et al.,2000.Temporal and spatial scales of observed soil moisture variations in the ex‐tratropics.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,105(D9):11865-11877.DOI:10.1029/2000JD900051.
Farouki OT,1981.The thermal properties of soils in cold re‐gions.Cold Regions Science and Technology,5(1):67-75.DOI:10.1016/0165-232X(81)90041-0.
Franz D,Mammarella I,Boike J,et al.,2018.Lake-atmo‐sphere heat flux dynamics of a thermokarst lake in Arctic Siberia.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,123:5222-5239.DOI:10.1029/2017JD027751.
Gao YH,Li K,Chen F,et al.,2015.Assessing and improving Noah-MP land model simulations for the central Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,120(18):9258-9278.DOI:10.1002/2015JD023404.
Gao YH,Xiao LH,Chen DL,et al.,2017.Quantification of the relative role of land-surface processes and large-scale forc‐ing in dynamic downscaling over the Tibetan Plateau.Cli‐mate Dynamics,48(5-6):1705-1721.DOI:10.1007/s00382-016-3168-6.
Gao ZQ,Chae N,Kim J,et al.,2004.Modeling of surface ener‐gy partitioning,surface temperature,and soil wetness in the Tibetan prairie using the Simple Biosphere Model 2(SiB2).Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,109(D6):D06102.DOI:10.1029/2003JD004089.
Guo DL,Yang MX,2010.Simulation of soil temperature and moisture in seasonally frozen ground of Central Tibetan Plateau by SHAW model.Plateau Meteorology,29(6):1369-1377.(in Chinese)
Hong J,Kim J,2010.Numerical study of surface energy parti‐tioning on the Tibetan plateau:comparative analysis of two biosphere models.Biogeosciences,7(2):557-568.DOI:10.5194/bg-7-557-2010.
Immerzeel WW,Van Beek LPH,Bierkens MFP,2010.Climate change will affect the Asian water towers.Science,328(5984):1382-1385.DOI:10.1126/science.1183188.
Ji P,Yuan X,Liang XZ,2017.Do lateral flows matter for the hyperresolution land surface modeling?Journal of Geo‐physical Research-Atmospheres,122(22):12077-12092.DOI:10.1002/2017JD027366.
Johansen O,1975.Thermal conductivity of soil.PhD Thesis,University of Trondheim,Norway.
Kanda M,Kanega M,Kawai T,et al.,2007.Roughness lengths for momentum and heat derived from outdoor urban scale models.Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,46(7):1067-1079.DOI:10.1175/JAM2500.1.
Kang SC,Xu YW,You QL,et al.,2010.Review of climate and cryospheric change in the Tibetan Plateau.Environmental Research Letters,5(1):015101.DOI:10.1088/1748-9326/5/1/015101.
Koster RD,Dirmeyer PA,Guo ZC,et al.,2004.Regions of strong coupling between soil moisture and precipitation.Science,305(5687):1138-1140.DOI:10.1126/science.1100217.
Krakauer NY,Puma MJ,Cook BI,2013.Impacts of soil-aqui‐fer heat and water fluxes on simulated global climate.Hy‐drology and Earth System Sciences,17(5):1963-1974.DOI:10.5194/hess-17-1963-2013.
Langer M,Westermann S,Anthony KW,et al.,2015.Frozen ponds:production and storage of methane during the Arctic winter in a lowland tundra landscape in northern Siberia,Lena River Delta.Biogeosciences,12:977-990.
Langer M,Westermann S,Boike J,et al.,2016.Rapid degrada‐tion of permafrost underneath waterbodies in tundra land‐scapes-Towards a representation of thermokarst in land sur‐face models.Journal of Geophysical Research-Earth Sur‐face,121(12):2446-2470.DOI:10.1002/2016JF003956.
Lawrence DM,Slater AG,2008.Incorporating organic soil in‐to a global climate model.Climate Dynamics,30(2-3):145-160.DOI:10.1007/s00382-007-0278-1.
Li Q,Sun SF,2006.Development of frozen soil model.Ad‐vances in Earth Science,21(12):1339-1349.DOI:10.11867/j.issn.1001-8166.2006.12.1339.(in Chinese)
Li Q,Sun SF,2007.Development of the university and simpli‐fied soil model coupling heat and water transport.Science China:Earth Sciences,37(11):1522-1535.DOI:10.1360/zd2007-37-11-1522.(in Chinese)
Li Q,Sun SF,Xue YK,2010.Analyses and development of a hierarchy of frozen soil models for cold region study.Jour‐nal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres115:D03107.DOI:10.1029/2009JD012530.
Li R,Zhao L,Ding YJ,et al.,2013.Study on soil thermody‐namic characteristics at different underlying surface in northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.Acta Energiae Solaris Si‐nica,34(6):1076-1084.(in Chinese)
Li X,Cheng GD,Jin HJ,et al.,2008.Cryospheric change in China.Global and Planetary Change,62(3-4):210-218.DOI:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2008.02.001.
Li X,Koike T,2003.Frozen soil parameterization in SiB2 and its validation with GAME-Tibet observations.Cold Re‐gions Science and Technology,36(1-3):165-182.DOI:10.1016/S0165-232X(03)00009-0.
Li Y,Sun R,Liu SM,2015.Vegetation physiological parameter setting in the Simple Biosphere model 2(SiB2)for alpine meadows in the upper reaches of Heihe river.Science Chi‐na-Earth Science,58(5):755-769.DOI:10.1007/s11430-014-4909-1.
Liu HL,Hu ZY,Cheng S,et al.,2016.Simulation of the land surface processes over the central Tibetan Plateau based on Noah-LSM and CoLM.Journal of Glaciology and Geocry‐ology,38(6):1501-1509.DOI:10.7522/j.issn.1000-0240.2016.0175.
Liu L,Ma YM,Menenti M,et al.,2019.Evaluation of WRFmodeling in relation to different land surface schemes and initial and boundary conditions:a snow event simulation over the Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Geophysical ResearchAtmospheres,124(1):209-226.DOI:10.1029/2018JD029208.
Luo SQ,Fang XW,Lv SH,et al.,2017.Improving CLM4.5simulations of land-atmosphere exchange during freezethaw processes on the Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Meteoro‐logical Research,31(5):916-930.DOI:10.1007/s13351-017-6063-0.
Luo SQ,Lv SH,Zhang Y,2009a.Development and validation of the frozen soil parameterization scheme in Common Land Model.Cold Regions Science and Technology,55(1):130-140.DOI:10.1016/j.coldregions.2008.07.009.
Luo SQ,Lv SH,Zhang Y,et al.,2009b.Soil thermal conductiv‐ity parameterization establishment and application in nu‐merical model of central Tibetan Plateau.Chinese Journal of Geophysics,52(4):919-928.DOI:10.3969/j.issn.001-5733.2009.04.008.
Ma HY,Xiao H,Mechoso CR,et al.,2013.Sensitivity of glob‐al tropical climate to land surface processes:mean state and inter annual variability.Journal of Climate,26(5):1818-1837.DOI:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00142.1.
Ma Q,Liu X,Li WP,et al.,2014.Simulation of thermal and hydraulic properties affected by organic and gravel soil over the Tibetan Plateau during summer.Chinese Journal of Atmospheric Sciences,38(2):337-351.DOI:10.3878/j.issn.1006-9895.2013.13119.
Ma SB,Zhou LB,2017.Characteristics of land-air exchange parameters over grassland in southeast Tibet.Journal of Hy‐drometeorology,18(8):2249-2264.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-16-0084.1.
Ma YM,Kang SC,Zhu LP,et al.,2008.Tibetan observation and research platform atmosphere-land interaction over a heterogeneous landscape.Bulletin of the American Meteo‐rological Society,89(10):1487-1492.DOI:10.1175/2008BAMS2545.1.
Ma YM,Ma WQ,Zhong L,et al.,2017.Monitoring and mod‐eling the Tibetan Plateau's climate system and its impact on East Asia.Scientific Reports,7:44574.DOI:10.1038/srep44574.
Ma YM,Wang Y,Wu R,et al.,2009b.Recent advances on the study of atmosphere-land interaction observations on the Tibetan Plateau.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences,13(7):1103-1111.DOI:10.5194/hess-13-1103-2009.
Ma YM,Yao TD,Hu ZY,et al.,2009a.The cooperative study on energy and water cycle over the Tibetan Plateau.Ad‐vances in Earth Science,24(11):1280-1284.(in Chinese)
Ma YM,Yao TD,Wang JM,2006.Experimental study of ener‐gy and water cycle in Tibetan Plateau-The progress intro‐duction on the study of GAME-Tibet and CAMP-Tibet.Plateau Meteorology,25(2):344-351.(in Chinese)
Niu GY,Yang ZL,2006.Effects of frozen soil on snowmelt runoff and soil water storage at a continental scale.Journal of Hydrometeorology,7(5):937-952.DOI:10.1175/JHM538.1.
Niu GY,Yang ZL,2007.An observation-based formulation of snow cover fraction and its evaluation over large north American river basins.Journal Geophysical Research-Atmo‐spheres,112(D21):D21101.DOI:10.1029/2007JD00 8674.
Niu GY,Yang ZL,Mitchell KE,et al.,2011.The community Noah land surface model with multiparameterization op‐tions(Noah-MP):1.Model description and evaluation with local-scale measurements.Journal Geophysical ResearchAtmospheres,116:D12109.DOI:10.1029/2010JD015139.
Owen PR,Thomson WR,1963.Heat transfer across rough sur‐faces.Journal of Fluid Mechanics,15(3):321-334.DOI:10.1017/S0022112063000288.
Pan BT,Li JJ,1996.Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau:A driver and am‐plifier of the global climate change III.The effects of the uplift of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau on Climatic Changes.Journal of Lanzhou University(Natural Sciences),32(1):108-115.(in Chinese)
Pan YJ,Lv SH,Li SS,et al.,2017.Simulating the role of grav‐el in freeze-thaw process on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.Theoretical and Applied Climatology,127(3-4):1011-1022.DOI:10.1007/s00704-015-1684-7.
Peters-Lidard CD,Blackburn E,Liang X,et al.,1998.The ef‐fect of soil thermal conductivity parameterization on sur‐face energy fluxes and temperatures.Journal of the Atmo‐spheric Sciences,55(7):1209-1224.DOI:10.1175/1520-0469(1998)055<1209:TEOSTC>2.0.CO;2.
Peylin P,Polcher J,Bonan G,et al.,1997.Comparison of two complex land surface schemes coupled to the National Cen‐ter for Atmospheric Research general circulation model.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,102(D16):19413-19431.DOI:10.1029/97JD00489.
Qiu J,2008.The third pole.Nature,454(7203):393-396.DOI:10.1038/454393a.
Ren XQ,Sun SF,Chen W,et al.,2013.A review of researches on the lake numerical modeling.Advances in Earth Sci‐ence,28(3):347-356.DOI:10.11867/j.issn.1001-8166.2013.03.0347.(in Chinese)
Sellers PJ,Dickinson RE,Randall DA,et al.,1997.Modeling the exchanges of energy,water,and carbon between conti‐nents and the atmosphere.Science,275(5299):502-509.DOI:10.1126/science.275.5299.502.
Seneviratne SI,Corti T,Davin EL,et al.,2010.Investigation soil moisture-climate interactions in a changing climate:Areview.Earth Science Reviews,99(3-4):125-161.DOI:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.02.004.
Sheppard PA,1958.Transfer across the earth's surface and through the air above.Quarterly Journal of the Royal Mete‐orological Society,84(361):205-224.DOI:10.1002/qj.49708436102.
Shukla J,Mintz Y,1982.Influence of land surface evapotrans‐piration on the earth's climate.Science,215(4539):1498-1501.DOI:10.1126/science.215.4539.1498.
Sud YC,Shukla J,Mintz Y,1988.Influence of land surface roughness on atmospheric circulation and precipitation-Asensitivity study with a general circulation model.Journal of Applied Meteorology,27(9):1036-1054.DOI:10.1175/1520-0450(1988)027<1036:IOLSRO>2.0.CO;2.
Sud YC,Smith WE,1985a.Influence of local land surface pro‐cesses on the Indian monsoon-A Numerical study.Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology,24(10):1015-1036.DOI:10.1175/1520-0450(1985)024<1015:IOLLSP>2.0.CO;2.
Sud YC,Smith WE,1985b.The Influence of surface rough‐ness of deserts on the July circulation(A numerical study).Boundary-Layer Meteorology,33(1):15-49.DOI:10.1007/BF00137034.
Sun SB,Chen BZ,Chen J,et al.,2016a.Comparison of re‐motely-sensed and modeled soil moisture using CLM4.0with in situ measurements in the central Tibetan Plateau ar‐ea.Cold Regions Science and Technology,129:31-44.DOI:10.1016/j.coldregions.2016.06.005.
Sun SB,Chen BZ,Ge MY,et al.,2016b.Improving soil organ‐ic carbon parameterization of land surface model for cold regions in the Northeastern Tibetan Plateau,China.Ecolog‐ical Modelling,330:1-15.DOI:10.1016/j.ecolmod‐el.2016.03.014.
Sun SF,2005.Parameterization Study of Physical and Bio‐chemical Mechanism in Land Surface Process.Beijing:China Meteorology Press.(in Chinese)
Swenson SC,Lawrence DM,2012b.A new fractional snowcovered area parameterization for the community land mod‐el and its effect on the surface energy balance.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,117:D21107.DOI:10.1029/2012JD018178.
Swenson SC,Lawrence DM,Lee H,2012a.Improved simula‐tion of the terrestrial hydrological cycle in permafrost re‐gions by the Community Land Model.Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems,4:M08002.DOI:10.1029/2012MS000165.
Takayabu I,Takata K,Yamazali T,et al.,2001.Comparison of the four land surface models driven by a common forcing data prepared from GAME/Tibet POP'97 products-Snow accumulation and soil freezing processes.Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan,79(1B):535-554.DOI:10.2151/jmsj.79.535.
Van der Velde R,Su Z,Ek M,et al.,2009.Influence of thermo‐dynamic soil and vegetation parameterizations on the simu‐lation of soil temperature states and surface fluxes by the Noah LSM over a Tibetan plateau site.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences,13(6):759-777.DOI:10.5194/hess-13-759-2009.
Van Genuchten MT,1980.A closed-form equation for predict‐ing the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.Soil Sci‐ence Society of America Journal,44(5):892-898.DOI:10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x.
Wang CH,Yang K,2018.A new scheme for considering soil water-heat transport coupling based on community land model:model description and preliminary validation.Jour‐nal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems,10(4):927-950.DOI:10.1002/2017MS001148.
Wang L,Zhou J,Qin J,et al.,2017.Development of a land sur‐face model with coupled snow and frozen soil physics.Wa‐ter Resources Research,53(6):5085-5103.DOI:10.1002/2017WR020451.
Wang XJ,Pang GJ,Yang MX,2018.Precipitation over the Ti‐betan Plateau during recent decades:a review based on ob‐servations and simulations.International Journal of Clima‐tology,38(3):1116-1131.DOI:10.1002/joc.5246.
Wang XJ,Pang GJ,Yang MX,et al.,2016.Effects of modified soil water-heat physics on RegCM4 simulations of climate over the Tibetan Plateau.Journal of Geophysical ResearchAtmospheres,121(12):6692-6712.DOI:10.1002/2015JD024407.
Wang XJ,Yang MX,Pang GJ,et al.,2015.Simulation and im‐provement of land surface processes in Nameqie,Central Tibetan Plateau,using the Community Land Model(CLM3.5).Environment Earth Sciences,73(11):7343-7357.DOI:10.1007/s12665-014-3911-4.
Wood EF,1991.Land Surface-Atmosphere Interactions for Climate Modeling.Dordrecht:Kluwer Academic Publish‐ers,pp.85-126,155-178.
Wu GX,Duan AM,Liu YM,et al.,2015.Tibetan Plateau cli‐mate dynamics:recent research progress and outlook.Na‐tional Science Review,2(1):100-116.DOI:10.1093/nsr/nwu045.
Wu GX,He B,Liu YM,et al.,2016.Recent progresses on dy‐namics of the Tibetan Plateau and Asian Summer Mon‐soon.Chinese Journal of Atmospheric Sciences,40(1):22-32.DOI:10.3878/j.issn.1006-9895.1504.15129.
Xia K,Luo Y,Li WP,2011.Simulation of freezing and melting of soil on the northeast Tibetan Plateau.Chinese Science Bulletin,56(20):2145-2155.DOI:10.1007/s11434-011-4542-8.
Xiao Y,Zhao L,Dai YJ,et al.,2013.Representing permafrost properties in CoLM for the Qinghai-Xizang(Tibetan)Pla‐teau.Cold Regions Science and Technology,87:68-77.DOI:10.1016/j.coldregions.2012.12.004.
Xie ZP,Hu ZY,Xie ZH,et al.,2018.Impact of the snow cover scheme on snow distribution and energy budget modeling over the Tibetan Plateau.Theoretical and Applied Climatolo‐gy,131(3-4):951-965.DOI:10.1007/s00704-016-2020-6.
Xu XD,Chen LS,2006.Advances of the study on Tibetan Pla‐teau experiment of atmospheric sciences.Journal of Ap‐plied Meteorological Science,17(6):756-772.(in Chinese)
Xu XD,Lu CG,Shi XH,et al.,2008a.World water tower:An atmospheric perspective.Geophysical Research Letters,35(20):L20815.DOI:10.1029/2008GL035867.
Xu XD,Zhang RH,Koike T,et al.,2008b.A new integrated observational system over the Tibetan Plateau.Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,89(10):1492-1496.DOI:10.1175/2008BAMS2557.1.
Xue YK,Shukla J,1993.The Influence of land surface proper‐ties on Sahel Climate.Part I:Desertification.Journal of Cli‐mate,6(12):2232-2245.DOI:10.1175/1520-0442(1993)006<2232:TIOLSP>2.0.CO;2.
Xue YK,Shukla J,1996.The Influence of land surface proper‐ties on Sahel Climate.Part II:Afforestation.Journal of Cli‐mate,9(12):3260-3275.DOI:10.1175/1520-0442(1996)009<3260:TIOLSP>2.0.CO;2.
Yang K,Chen YY,Qin J,2009.Some practical notes on the land surface modeling in the Tibetan Plateau.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences,13(5):687-701.DOI:10.5194/hess-13-687-2009.
Yang K,Koike T,Ishikawa H,et al.,2008.Turbulent flux transfer over bare-soil surfaces:Characteristics and parame‐terization.Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatolo‐gy,47(1):276-290.DOI:10.1175/2007JAMC1547.1.
Yang K,Koike T,Ye BS,et al.,2005.Inverse analysis of the role of soil vertical heterogeneity in controlling surface soil state and energy partition.Journal of Geophysical Re‐search-Atmospheres,110(D8):D08101.DOI:10.1029/2004JD005500.
Yang K,Qin J,Zhao L,et al.,2013.A multiscale soil mois‐ture and freeze-thaw monitoring network on the third pole.Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,94(12):1907-1916.DOI:10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00203.1.
Yang K,Rasmy M,Rauniyar S,et al.,2007.Initial CEOP-based review of the prediction skill of operational general circulation models and land surface models.Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan,85A:99-116.DOI:10.2151/jmsj.85A.99.
Yang K,Wang CH,Li SY,2018.Improved simulation of fro‐zen-thawing process in land surface model(CLM4.5).Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,123(23):13238-13258.DOI:10.1029/2017JD028260.
Yang K,Wu H,Qin J,et al.,2014.Recent climate changes over the Tibetan Plateau and their impacts on energy and water cycle:A review.Global and Planetary Change,112:79-91.DOI:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2013.12.001.
Yang MX,Wang XJ,Pang GJ,et al.,2019.The Tibetan Pla‐teau cryosphere:Observations and model simulations for current status and recent changes.Earth-Sciences Reviews,190:353-369.DOI:10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.12.018.
Yang MX,Yao TD,Gou XH,et al.,2007a.The spatially het‐erogeneous distribution of precipitation of the Anduo area,Tibetan Plateau,in summer 1998.Hydrological Sciences Journal-Journal Des Sciences Hydeologiques,52(4):645-653.DOI:10.1623/hysj.52.4.645
Yang MX,Yao TD,Gou XH,et al.,2007b.Water recycling be‐tween the land surface and atmosphere on the northern Ti‐betan Plateau-A case study at flat observation sites.Arctic,Antarctic and Alpine Research,39(4):694-698.DOI:10.1657/1523-0430(07-509)[YANG]2.0.CO;2.
Yao TD,Thompson L,Yang W,et al.,2012.Different glacier status with atmospheric circulations in Tibetan Plateau and surroundings.Nature Climate Change,2(9):663-667.DOI:10.1038/NCLIMATE1580.
Yao TD,Wu FY,Ding L,et al.,2015.Multispherical interac‐tions and their effects on the Tibetan Plateau's earth sys‐tem:a review of the recent researches.National Science Re‐view,2(4):468-488.DOI:10.1093/nsr/nwv070.
Ye DZ,Gao YX,1979.The Meteorology of the Qinghai-Xi‐zang(Tibet)Plateau.Beijing:Science Press.(in Chinese)
Ye DZ,Zeng QC,Guo YF,1991.Current Research in Climate.Beijing:Meteorological Press.(in Chinese)
You QL,Min JZ,Zhang W,et al.,2015.Comparison of multi‐ple datasets with gridded precipitation observations over the Tibetan Plateau.Climate Dynamics,45(3-4):791-806.DOI:10.1007/s00382-014-2310-6.
Yuan X,Ji P,Wang LY,et al.,2018.High-resolution land surface modeling of hydrological changes over the sanjiangyuan re‐gion in the eastern Tibetan Plateau:1.model development and evaluation.Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Sys‐tems,10(11):2806-2828.DOI:10.1029/2018MS 001412.
Zeng XB,Dickinson RE,1998.Effect of surface sublayer on surface skin temperature and fluxes.Journal of Climate,11(4):537-550.DOI:10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011<0537:EOSSOS>2.0.CO;2.
Zeng XB,Wang Z,Wang AH,2012.Surface skin temperature and the interplay between sensible and ground heat fluxes over arid regions.Journal of Hydrometeorology,13(4):1359-1370.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-11-0117.1.
Zhan CS,Ning LK,Zhou J,et al.,2018.A review on the fully coupled atmosphere-hydrology simulations.Acta Geographi‐ca Sinica,73(5):893-905.DOI:10.11821/dlxb20180 5009.
Zhang G,Chen F,Gan YJ,2016.Assessing uncertainties in the Noah-MP ensemble simulations of a cropland site during the Tibet Joint International Cooperation program field campaign.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,121(16):9576-9596.DOI:10.1002/2016JD024928.
Zhang RH,Koike T,Xu XD,et al.,2012.A China-Japan coop‐erative JICA atmospheric observing network over the Tibet‐an Plateau(JICA/Tibet Project):An overviews.Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan,90C:1-16.DOI:10.2151/jmsj.2012-C01.
Zhang X,Sun SF,Xue YK,2006.Development and testing of a frozen soil parameterization for cold region studies.Jour‐nal of Hydrometeorology,8(4):690-701.DOI:10.1175/JHM605.1.
Zhao H,Zeng YJ,Lv SN,et al.,2018.Analysis of soil hydrau‐lic and thermal properties for land surface modeling over the Tibetan Plateau.Earth System Science Data,10(2):1031-1061.DOI:10.5194/essd-10-1031-2018.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2014.Assessment of roughness length schemes implemented within the Noah land surface model for high-altitude regions.Journal of Hydrome‐teorology,15(3):921-937.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-13-0102.1.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2015a.Under-cano‐py turbulence and root water uptake of a Tibetan meadow ecosystem modeled by Noah-MP.Water Resources Re‐search,51(7):5735-5755.DOI:10.1002/2015WR017115.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2015b.Augmenta‐tions to the Noah model physics for application to the Yel‐low River Source Area.Part I:soil water flow.Journal of Hydrometeorology,16(6):2659-2676.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-14-0198.1.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2015c.Augmenta‐tions to the Noah model physics for application to the Yel‐low River Source Area.Part II:turbulent heat fluxes and soil heat transport.Journal of Hydrometeorology,16(6):2677-2694.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-14-0199.1.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2016a.Impacts of Noah model physics on catchment-scale runoff simula‐tions.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,121(2):807-832.DOI:10.1002/2015JD023695.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2016b.Assessment of Noah land surface model with various runoff parameter‐izations over a Tibetan River.Journal of Geophysical Re‐search-Atmospheres,122(3):1488-1504.DOI:10.1002/2016JD025572.
Zheng DH,van der Velde R,Su ZB,et al.,2017.Evaluation of Noah Frozen Soil Parameterization for Application to a Ti‐betan Meadow Ecosystem.Journal of Hydrometeorology,18(6):1749-1763.DOI:10.1175/JHM-D-16-0199.1.
Zheng WZ,Wei HL,Wang Z,et al.,2012.Improvement of daytime land surface skin temperature over arid regions in the NCEP GFS model and its impact on satellite data assim‐ilation.Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres,117,D06117.DOI:10.1029/2011JD015901.
Zhou LM,Tucker CJ,Kaufmann RK,et al.,2001.Variations in northern vegetation activity inferred from satellite data of vegetation index during 1981 to 1999.Journal of Geophysi‐cal Research-Atmospheres,106(D17):20069-20083.DOI:10.1029/2000JD000115.
Zhou YL,Sun XM,Zhu ZL,et al.,2007.Comparative research on four typical surface roughness length calculation meth‐ods.Geographical Research,26(5):887-896.DOI:10.11821/yj2007050004.(in Chinese)
Zhu ZC,Piao SL,Xu L,et al.,2017.Attribution of seasonal leaf area index trends in the northern latitudes with"opti‐mally"integrated ecosystem models.Global Change Biolo‐gy,23(11):4798-4813.DOI:10.1111/gcb.13723.
Zilitinkevich SS,1995.Non-local turbulent transport:Pollution dispersion aspects of coherent structure of convective flows,Air Pollution III,Vol.I,Air Theory and Simulation.In:Power H,Moussiopoulos N,Brebbia CA(eds.).Boston:Computational Mechanics Publications,pp:53-60.
Zou DF,Zhao L,Sheng Y,et al.,2017.A new map of perma‐frost distribution on the Tibetan Plateau.The Cryosphere,11(6):2527-2542.DOI:10.5194/tc-11-2527-2017.