“占领伦敦”:土地产权与公共性之争
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摘要
文章以"占领伦敦"为线索,聚焦其中围绕土地产权的各方权利冲突,以及公共权力与公众之间对"公共"话语的争夺。文章利用参与式观察与访谈获取数据,结合对相关诉讼案件辩词、土地交易协议及历史档案的分析,指出是私有土地产权的排他性权利与政府作为公权力的城市管理权共同导致了帕特诺斯特广场被封锁及圣保罗营地被清除的遭遇。占领者营地的社会组织与空间实践则充分显示出他们与城市政府对城市"公共性"的不同理解与追求。对"占领伦敦"的细致分析既帮助我们了解英国的土地产权架构及政府的城市规划权、土地强制征收权等管治权力,也促进了对公共空间固有困境的思考,这些都将为进一步探讨中国城市的土地制度、公共空间与公共性提供参考与启发。
This paper focuses on the conflicts in land ownership and politics around "publicness" that Occupy London reflects. With the data obtained from participant observation and interviews, combined with the records of the case of City of London-v-Samede and others, land transaction and archives, this paper argues that, it is the exclusive rights of private property and governmental power of the Corporation of the City of London that resulted in the injunction preventing the protesters entering into Paternoster Square and the eviction of them from the St. Pauls Camp. The organisation and practice of the Occupy camp reveals an alternative possibility of the city "publicness", which is different from the one that the authority claims. The analysis on the Occupy London can help understand English landownership system and the planning power and compulsory purchase power of the state. It also promotes the thinking about the dilemma of public space, which in turn facilitates the discussion in Chinese context.
This paper focuses on the conflicts in land ownership and politics around "publicness" that Occupy London reflects. With the data obtained from participant observation and interviews, combined with the records of the case of City of London-v-Samede and others, land transaction and archives, this paper argues that, it is the exclusive rights of private property and governmental power of the Corporation of the City of London that resulted in the injunction preventing the protesters entering into Paternoster Square and the eviction of them from the St. Pauls Camp. The organisation and practice of the Occupy camp reveals an alternative possibility of the city "publicness", which is different from the one that the authority claims. The analysis on the Occupy London can help understand English landownership system and the planning power and compulsory purchase power of the state. It also promotes the thinking about the dilemma of public space, which in turn facilitates the discussion in Chinese context.
引文
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[2]COSTANZACHOCK S.Mic Check!media cultures and the occupy movement[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):375-385.
[3]K?KSAL L.Walking in the City of London[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):446-453.
[4]LAYARD A.Property paradigms and place-making:a right to the city;a right to the street?[J].Journal of Human Rights and the Environment,2012,3(2):254–272.
[5]JENNY P,JOHN K.Why does occupy matter?[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):279-287.
[6]SCHEIN R.Whose occupation?homelessness and the politics of park encampments[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):335-341.
[7]LIBOIRON M.Tactics of waste,dirt and discard in the occupy movement[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):393-401.
[8]HALVORSEN S.Beyond the network?occupy london and the global movement[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):427-433.
[9]HALVORSEN S.Encountering occupy London:boundary making and the territoriality of urban activism[J].Environment and Planning D:Society and Space,2015,33:314-330.
[10]JURIS J S,Ronayne M,Wengronowitz R,et al.Negotiating power and difference within the 99%[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):434-440.
[11]BARKER A J.Already occupied:indigenous peoples,settler colonialism and the occupy movements in North America[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):327-334.
[12]SMITH C,CASTA?EDA E,HEYMAN J.The homeless and occupy El Paso:creating community among the 99%[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):356-366.
[13]Anonymous.Occupy-the end of the affair[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):446-453.
[14]FLETCHER S.The Occupy Movement vs.Capitalist Realism:seeking extraordinary transformations in consciousness[M]//Green harms and crimes.Palgrave Macmillan UK,2015.
[15]THORPE S.Rights,constitution and radical democracy in Occupy Wall Street and Occupy London[J].Birkbeck Law Review,2013,1(2):225-280.
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[17]MORGAN M.The containment of Occupy:militarized police forces and social control in America[J].Global Discourse,2014,4(2-3):267-284.
[18]ERNESTO Casta?eda.The indignados of Spain:a precedent to Occupy Wall Street[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):309-319.
[19]KERTON S.Tahrir,here?the inf luence of the Arab uprisings on the emergence of occupy[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):302-308.
[20]MINTON A.Should the protesters have the right to occupy public space?[J].Building Design,2011.
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[22]WALKER P.St Paul’s Cathedral dean resigns over Occupy London protest row,The Guardian[J/OL].(2011-10-31)[2016-12-24].https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/oct/31/st-pauls-dean-resigns-occupy.
[23]HARRIS P.Salvation of St Paul’s:protest cap that lasted 137 days is cleared in 137 minutes[J/OL].(2012-02-29)[2016-12-24].http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2107467/Occupy-London-Bailiffs-evict-protestersoutside-St-Pauls-Cathedral.html.
[24]Occupy London protesters evicted from UBS-owned building[J/OL].The Telegraph.(2012-01-30)[2016-12-24].http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/9048738/Occupy-London-protesters-evicted-fromUBS-owned-building.html.
[25]Occupy London protesters evicted from Finsbury Square[J/OL].BBC News.(2012-06-14)[2016-12-24].http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-englandlondon-18437009.
[26]HOOPER H J.‘A case without precedent’:City of London v Samede and Other s[J/OL].UK Constitutional Law Association.https://ukconstitutionallaw.org/2012/05/01/hayley-j-hooper-a-case-withoutprecedent-city-of-london-v-samede-and-others-2012-ewhc-34-qb/.
[27]BHANDAR B.Possession,occupation and registration:recombinant ownership in the settler colony[J].Journal Settler Colonial Studies,2015,6(2):1-14.
[28]FINCHETT-MADDOCK L.Time’s up-resisting private limitations on rights to housing and protest[M]//VOLS M,SIDOLI DEL CENO J,eds.Studies in housing law.The Hague:Eleven International Publishing,2016.
[29]City of London v Samede and others[Z].Neutral Citation Number:[2012]EWHC 34(QB).Court of Appeal(England and Wales)(Civil Division).2012-02-22:17-19,23-24,46-51,53;79,81,104,165.
[30]United Kingdom Parliament.Town and Country Planning Act 1990[Z].1990:55,178(1),187(b).
[31]United Kingdom Parliament.Local Government Act 1972[Z].
[32]United Kingdom Parliament.Local Government Act 2000[Z].
[33]United Kingdom Parliament.Highways Act 1980[Z].1980:130,143,263.
[34]RAWLINSON K.City wins legal bid to evict Occupy London protesters[J/OL].Independent.(2012-01-19)[2016-01-01].http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/city-wins-legal-bid-to-evict-occupy-londonprotesters-6291250.html.
[35]United Kingdom Parliament.Public Health Act 1936[Z].1936:269.
[36]KAYDENJ S.Privately owned publicspace:the New York City experience[M].New York:John Wiley and Sons,Inc.,1998.
[37]MINTON A.Ground control:fear and happiness in the Twenty-First Century city[M].Penguin,2009.
[38]COLEMAN R,SIM J.‘You’ll never walk alone’:CCTV surveillance,order and neo-liberal rule in Liverpool city centre[J].British Journal of Sociology,2000,51(4):623-639.
[39]MINTON A.Private spaces are stifling protest[N].The Guardian,2011-10-26.
[40]About Paternoster[OL].http://www.paternostersquare.info/aboutpaternoster.aspx.
[41]United Kingdom Parliament.Town and Country Planning Acts of 1944.
[42]United Kingdom Parliament.Town and Country Planning Acts of 1947.
[43]Bombed Areas(Declarator y Orders)[Z].Hansard(HC),460:738-740.London Metropolitan Archives,1949.
[44]United Kingdom Parliament.Acquisition of Land(Authorisation Proced ure)Act of 1946.
[45]Corporation of London.City of London Declaratory Order[Z].London Metropolitan Archives,1948.
[46]The City of London(St.Paul’s Precinct North)Compulsory Purchase Order[Z].London Metropolitan Archives,1963.
[47]LN195019[Z].Land Registry,Wales Office.
[48]HALE R L.Property and Sovereignty[J].Law and the Social Order,1933:41.
[49]City of London funds[OL].[2016-01-01].http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/about-the-city/how-we-make-decisions/budgets-and-spending/Pages/City-ofLondon-Funds.aspx.
[50]MONBIOT G.The medieval,unaccountable corporation of London is ripe for protest[J/OL].The Guardian.(2011-10-31)[2016-01-01].http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/oct/31/corporation-london-citymedieval.
[51]QUINN B.Corporation of London:an ancient institution that favours big business[J/OL].The Guardian.(2011-10-31)[2016-01-01].https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/oct/31/corporation-london-institution-big-business.
[52]SHAXSON N.The taxhaven in the heart of Britain[J/OL].New Statesman.(2011-02-24)[2016-01-01].http://www.newstatesman.com/economy/2011/02/london-corporation-city.
[53]LOW S M.On the Plaza:the politics of public space and culture[M].Austin:University of Texas Press,2000.
[54]BLACKMAR E.Appropriating“the commons”:the tragedy of property rightdiscourse[M]//Low S,Smith N,eds.The politics of public space.New York:Routledge,2006.
[55]BERGER A.Encyclopedic dictionary of Roman law[M].Philadelphia:The American Philosophic Society,43,Part 2,1953:679.
[56]SOHM R.The institutes of Roman law[M].Google Book,1892:226.
[57]LINEBAUGH P.The Magna Carta Manifesto:liberties and commons for all[M].University of California Press,2009:376.
[58]YELLING J A.Common field and enclosure in England 1450–1850[M].Macmillan Education UK,1977.
[59]BLOMLEY N.Enclosure,common right and the property of the poor[J].Social&Legal Studies,2008,17(3):311-331.
[60]KIVELL P T,MCKAY I.Public ownership of urban land[J].Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers,New Series,1988,13(2):165-178.
[61]Occupy London,Initial Statement[OL].http://occupylondon.org.uk/about/statements/initial-statement/.
[62]SITRIN M.Horizontalism and the occupy movements[J].Dissent,2012,59(3):585-608.
[63]City of London.The corporation of London:its origin,constitution powers and duties[M].Printed by Order of the Corporation under the Direction of the Special Committee,London&New York:Oxford University Press,1950:5-6.
[64]PENNER E P.The boundle of right:picture of property[J].UCLA Law Review,1996,43:711-820.
[65]德姆塞茨,哈罗德.关于产权的理论[M]//罗卫东,编选.刘守英,译.经济学基础文献选读.杭州:浙江大学出版社,2007:179-184.
[66]渠敬东.占有、经营与治理:乡镇企业的三重分析概念(上).重返经典社会科学研究的一项尝试[J].社会,2013,33(2):1-37.
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[74]United Kingdom Parliament.Land Registration Act 2002[Z].Part 9 Adverse Possession.
(1)英国仅强制在土地交易时登记土地所有权,鼓励但不强制产权人登记土地所有信息。
(1)为避免和大伦敦政府混淆,2006年伦敦城政府官方名称从之前一直沿用的Corporation of London改作City of London Corporation。
(1)常常简称作The City,或The Square Mile,“1平方英里”。
(2)由于伦敦城(City of London)扩张并同其他的市镇连成一片,整个区域变得更有必要统一管辖。于是1963年先成立“大伦敦议会”(Greater London Council),1965成立“大伦敦郡”(County of Greater London),但被“新自由主义”导向的撒切尔政府于1985年废除。直到1994年大伦敦才重新成为一个行政区,并于2000年成立今日的大伦敦政府(Greater London Authority)和选举第一任市长。大伦敦市长称“Mayor of London”,而伦敦城市长称“Lord Mayor of London”。
(3)在名义上“政教合一”的英国,教会的公有团体身份以及其土地的公私属性一直是一个未有定论的争议话题。
(4)“占领伦敦”发生后,有学者发邮件给伦敦城政府请求公开伦敦城内所有城市政府拥有的公共空间的信息,政府拒绝了这一请求。理由之一便是伦敦城政府不仅作为地方政府,也作为普通私有产权人持有某些土地。由于这部分资金并不来自税收,所以可免于公共监督。
(1)可以在此做一下并不严谨的类比:占领者集结在特定地点,对外宣布共同的口号、原则,某种程度上就像中世纪的伦敦市民以共同宣誓结盟成城市共同体;占领者试图基于自愿、平等、互助组织,从而不依赖于国家资本主义体制,亦如曾经的英国城市(City)因享有自治从而脱离封建秩序并与王权抗衡。
[2]COSTANZACHOCK S.Mic Check!media cultures and the occupy movement[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):375-385.
[3]K?KSAL L.Walking in the City of London[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):446-453.
[4]LAYARD A.Property paradigms and place-making:a right to the city;a right to the street?[J].Journal of Human Rights and the Environment,2012,3(2):254–272.
[5]JENNY P,JOHN K.Why does occupy matter?[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):279-287.
[6]SCHEIN R.Whose occupation?homelessness and the politics of park encampments[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):335-341.
[7]LIBOIRON M.Tactics of waste,dirt and discard in the occupy movement[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):393-401.
[8]HALVORSEN S.Beyond the network?occupy london and the global movement[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):427-433.
[9]HALVORSEN S.Encountering occupy London:boundary making and the territoriality of urban activism[J].Environment and Planning D:Society and Space,2015,33:314-330.
[10]JURIS J S,Ronayne M,Wengronowitz R,et al.Negotiating power and difference within the 99%[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):434-440.
[11]BARKER A J.Already occupied:indigenous peoples,settler colonialism and the occupy movements in North America[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):327-334.
[12]SMITH C,CASTA?EDA E,HEYMAN J.The homeless and occupy El Paso:creating community among the 99%[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):356-366.
[13]Anonymous.Occupy-the end of the affair[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):446-453.
[14]FLETCHER S.The Occupy Movement vs.Capitalist Realism:seeking extraordinary transformations in consciousness[M]//Green harms and crimes.Palgrave Macmillan UK,2015.
[15]THORPE S.Rights,constitution and radical democracy in Occupy Wall Street and Occupy London[J].Birkbeck Law Review,2013,1(2):225-280.
[16]PATRICK F G,BOB E,JOHN A N.Strategic incapacitation and the policing of Occupy Wall Street protests in New York City,2011[J].Policing&Society,2013,23(1):81-102.
[17]MORGAN M.The containment of Occupy:militarized police forces and social control in America[J].Global Discourse,2014,4(2-3):267-284.
[18]ERNESTO Casta?eda.The indignados of Spain:a precedent to Occupy Wall Street[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):309-319.
[19]KERTON S.Tahrir,here?the inf luence of the Arab uprisings on the emergence of occupy[J].Social Movement Studies,2012,11(3-4):302-308.
[20]MINTON A.Should the protesters have the right to occupy public space?[J].Building Design,2011.
[21]RICKMAN D.Occupy London protesters welcomed into St Paul’s Cathedral by Canon Giles Fraser[J/OL].The Huffington Post.(2011-10-16)[2016-12-24].http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2011/10/16/occupylondon-protesters-_n_1013483.html.
[22]WALKER P.St Paul’s Cathedral dean resigns over Occupy London protest row,The Guardian[J/OL].(2011-10-31)[2016-12-24].https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/oct/31/st-pauls-dean-resigns-occupy.
[23]HARRIS P.Salvation of St Paul’s:protest cap that lasted 137 days is cleared in 137 minutes[J/OL].(2012-02-29)[2016-12-24].http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2107467/Occupy-London-Bailiffs-evict-protestersoutside-St-Pauls-Cathedral.html.
[24]Occupy London protesters evicted from UBS-owned building[J/OL].The Telegraph.(2012-01-30)[2016-12-24].http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/9048738/Occupy-London-protesters-evicted-fromUBS-owned-building.html.
[25]Occupy London protesters evicted from Finsbury Square[J/OL].BBC News.(2012-06-14)[2016-12-24].http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-englandlondon-18437009.
[26]HOOPER H J.‘A case without precedent’:City of London v Samede and Other s[J/OL].UK Constitutional Law Association.https://ukconstitutionallaw.org/2012/05/01/hayley-j-hooper-a-case-withoutprecedent-city-of-london-v-samede-and-others-2012-ewhc-34-qb/.
[27]BHANDAR B.Possession,occupation and registration:recombinant ownership in the settler colony[J].Journal Settler Colonial Studies,2015,6(2):1-14.
[28]FINCHETT-MADDOCK L.Time’s up-resisting private limitations on rights to housing and protest[M]//VOLS M,SIDOLI DEL CENO J,eds.Studies in housing law.The Hague:Eleven International Publishing,2016.
[29]City of London v Samede and others[Z].Neutral Citation Number:[2012]EWHC 34(QB).Court of Appeal(England and Wales)(Civil Division).2012-02-22:17-19,23-24,46-51,53;79,81,104,165.
[30]United Kingdom Parliament.Town and Country Planning Act 1990[Z].1990:55,178(1),187(b).
[31]United Kingdom Parliament.Local Government Act 1972[Z].
[32]United Kingdom Parliament.Local Government Act 2000[Z].
[33]United Kingdom Parliament.Highways Act 1980[Z].1980:130,143,263.
[34]RAWLINSON K.City wins legal bid to evict Occupy London protesters[J/OL].Independent.(2012-01-19)[2016-01-01].http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/city-wins-legal-bid-to-evict-occupy-londonprotesters-6291250.html.
[35]United Kingdom Parliament.Public Health Act 1936[Z].1936:269.
[36]KAYDENJ S.Privately owned publicspace:the New York City experience[M].New York:John Wiley and Sons,Inc.,1998.
[37]MINTON A.Ground control:fear and happiness in the Twenty-First Century city[M].Penguin,2009.
[38]COLEMAN R,SIM J.‘You’ll never walk alone’:CCTV surveillance,order and neo-liberal rule in Liverpool city centre[J].British Journal of Sociology,2000,51(4):623-639.
[39]MINTON A.Private spaces are stifling protest[N].The Guardian,2011-10-26.
[40]About Paternoster[OL].http://www.paternostersquare.info/aboutpaternoster.aspx.
[41]United Kingdom Parliament.Town and Country Planning Acts of 1944.
[42]United Kingdom Parliament.Town and Country Planning Acts of 1947.
[43]Bombed Areas(Declarator y Orders)[Z].Hansard(HC),460:738-740.London Metropolitan Archives,1949.
[44]United Kingdom Parliament.Acquisition of Land(Authorisation Proced ure)Act of 1946.
[45]Corporation of London.City of London Declaratory Order[Z].London Metropolitan Archives,1948.
[46]The City of London(St.Paul’s Precinct North)Compulsory Purchase Order[Z].London Metropolitan Archives,1963.
[47]LN195019[Z].Land Registry,Wales Office.
[48]HALE R L.Property and Sovereignty[J].Law and the Social Order,1933:41.
[49]City of London funds[OL].[2016-01-01].http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/about-the-city/how-we-make-decisions/budgets-and-spending/Pages/City-ofLondon-Funds.aspx.
[50]MONBIOT G.The medieval,unaccountable corporation of London is ripe for protest[J/OL].The Guardian.(2011-10-31)[2016-01-01].http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/oct/31/corporation-london-citymedieval.
[51]QUINN B.Corporation of London:an ancient institution that favours big business[J/OL].The Guardian.(2011-10-31)[2016-01-01].https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/oct/31/corporation-london-institution-big-business.
[52]SHAXSON N.The taxhaven in the heart of Britain[J/OL].New Statesman.(2011-02-24)[2016-01-01].http://www.newstatesman.com/economy/2011/02/london-corporation-city.
[53]LOW S M.On the Plaza:the politics of public space and culture[M].Austin:University of Texas Press,2000.
[54]BLACKMAR E.Appropriating“the commons”:the tragedy of property rightdiscourse[M]//Low S,Smith N,eds.The politics of public space.New York:Routledge,2006.
[55]BERGER A.Encyclopedic dictionary of Roman law[M].Philadelphia:The American Philosophic Society,43,Part 2,1953:679.
[56]SOHM R.The institutes of Roman law[M].Google Book,1892:226.
[57]LINEBAUGH P.The Magna Carta Manifesto:liberties and commons for all[M].University of California Press,2009:376.
[58]YELLING J A.Common field and enclosure in England 1450–1850[M].Macmillan Education UK,1977.
[59]BLOMLEY N.Enclosure,common right and the property of the poor[J].Social&Legal Studies,2008,17(3):311-331.
[60]KIVELL P T,MCKAY I.Public ownership of urban land[J].Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers,New Series,1988,13(2):165-178.
[61]Occupy London,Initial Statement[OL].http://occupylondon.org.uk/about/statements/initial-statement/.
[62]SITRIN M.Horizontalism and the occupy movements[J].Dissent,2012,59(3):585-608.
[63]City of London.The corporation of London:its origin,constitution powers and duties[M].Printed by Order of the Corporation under the Direction of the Special Committee,London&New York:Oxford University Press,1950:5-6.
[64]PENNER E P.The boundle of right:picture of property[J].UCLA Law Review,1996,43:711-820.
[65]德姆塞茨,哈罗德.关于产权的理论[M]//罗卫东,编选.刘守英,译.经济学基础文献选读.杭州:浙江大学出版社,2007:179-184.
[66]渠敬东.占有、经营与治理:乡镇企业的三重分析概念(上).重返经典社会科学研究的一项尝试[J].社会,2013,33(2):1-37.
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(1)英国仅强制在土地交易时登记土地所有权,鼓励但不强制产权人登记土地所有信息。
(1)为避免和大伦敦政府混淆,2006年伦敦城政府官方名称从之前一直沿用的Corporation of London改作City of London Corporation。
(1)常常简称作The City,或The Square Mile,“1平方英里”。
(2)由于伦敦城(City of London)扩张并同其他的市镇连成一片,整个区域变得更有必要统一管辖。于是1963年先成立“大伦敦议会”(Greater London Council),1965成立“大伦敦郡”(County of Greater London),但被“新自由主义”导向的撒切尔政府于1985年废除。直到1994年大伦敦才重新成为一个行政区,并于2000年成立今日的大伦敦政府(Greater London Authority)和选举第一任市长。大伦敦市长称“Mayor of London”,而伦敦城市长称“Lord Mayor of London”。
(3)在名义上“政教合一”的英国,教会的公有团体身份以及其土地的公私属性一直是一个未有定论的争议话题。
(4)“占领伦敦”发生后,有学者发邮件给伦敦城政府请求公开伦敦城内所有城市政府拥有的公共空间的信息,政府拒绝了这一请求。理由之一便是伦敦城政府不仅作为地方政府,也作为普通私有产权人持有某些土地。由于这部分资金并不来自税收,所以可免于公共监督。
(1)可以在此做一下并不严谨的类比:占领者集结在特定地点,对外宣布共同的口号、原则,某种程度上就像中世纪的伦敦市民以共同宣誓结盟成城市共同体;占领者试图基于自愿、平等、互助组织,从而不依赖于国家资本主义体制,亦如曾经的英国城市(City)因享有自治从而脱离封建秩序并与王权抗衡。