社会资本对生活垃圾减量的影响及其作用机制
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摘要
在经济快速增长、城镇人口持续增加以及人民生活水平大幅改善的同时,我国生活垃圾产生量也在急剧增加。为回答规制政策和社会资本能否有助于缓解垃圾围城压力这一现实问题,文章利用城市层面的面板数据及中国综合社会调查数据,考察了规制政策和社会资本对城市人均生活垃圾排放量的影响。结果表明:生活垃圾收费政策和源头分类试点政策并没有如预期的那样显著降低城市人均生活垃圾排量,固定费率的生活垃圾收费政策甚至会提高生活垃圾排放群体的排放量;社会资本对城市人均生活垃圾排放量具有显著负向影响,该结果在使用了不同测量指标、不同度量方法、不同估计方法和考虑了社会资本内生性的情形下依然稳健;进一步的影响机制分析发现,社会资本通过促进居民垃圾分类投放和垃圾源头减量行为从而降低生活垃圾排放。文章为推进中国环境管理转型的政策设计提供了一个有益的视角。
Along with rapid economic growth,increasing urban population,and substantially improved living standards,the total amount of municipal solid waste has increased dramatically inC hina.In order to answer the specific question of whether regulatory policies and social capital can help relieve the pressure of garbage siege,this paper systematically examines the impact of regulatory policies and social capital on per capita waste generation with a city-level panel data file combined with the Chinese General Social Survey data.The empirical results provide evidence as follows.Firstly,waste charging system and waste source separation policy do not significantly reduce waste generation per capita as expected.Flat-rate waste charging system might even increase waste generation of groups with high generation level.Secondly,social capital significantly and negatively influences per capita waste generation,which keeps constant with employing different measurement indexes,measurement methods and estimation techniques,and taking into account the endogeneity problem of social capital.Thirdly,social capital reduces waste generation by promoting household behavior on waste sorting and source reduction.Finally,among the three social capital components,social trust and social norms have significantly decreased per capita waste generation.Nevertheless,the waste reduction effect of social capital appears to have a fluctuant downward trend as time goes by.This paper provides a unique insight into the policy design on how to promote environmental management transition in China.
Along with rapid economic growth,increasing urban population,and substantially improved living standards,the total amount of municipal solid waste has increased dramatically inC hina.In order to answer the specific question of whether regulatory policies and social capital can help relieve the pressure of garbage siege,this paper systematically examines the impact of regulatory policies and social capital on per capita waste generation with a city-level panel data file combined with the Chinese General Social Survey data.The empirical results provide evidence as follows.Firstly,waste charging system and waste source separation policy do not significantly reduce waste generation per capita as expected.Flat-rate waste charging system might even increase waste generation of groups with high generation level.Secondly,social capital significantly and negatively influences per capita waste generation,which keeps constant with employing different measurement indexes,measurement methods and estimation techniques,and taking into account the endogeneity problem of social capital.Thirdly,social capital reduces waste generation by promoting household behavior on waste sorting and source reduction.Finally,among the three social capital components,social trust and social norms have significantly decreased per capita waste generation.Nevertheless,the waste reduction effect of social capital appears to have a fluctuant downward trend as time goes by.This paper provides a unique insight into the policy design on how to promote environmental management transition in China.
引文
[1]SAKAI S,IKEMATSU T,HIRAI Y,et al. Unit-charging programs for municipal solid waste in Japan[J]. Waste Management,2008,28(12):2815-2825.
[2]PAUDEL K P,SCHAFER M J. The environmental Kuznets curve under a new framework:the role of social capital in waterpollution[J]. Environmental and Resource Economics,2009,42(2):265-278.
[3]IBRAHIM M H,LAW S H. Social capital and CO2 emission—output relations:a panel analysis[J]. Renewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews,2014,29(7):528-534.
[4]KEENE A,DELLER S C. Evidence of the environmental kuznets’curve among US counties and the impact of social capital[J].International Regional Science Review,2015,38(4):358-387.
[5]万建香,梅国平.社会资本可否激励经济增长与环境保护的双赢?[J].数量经济技术经济研究,2012(7):61-75.
[6]SKUMATZ L A. Measuring source reduction:pay as you throw/variable rates as an example[R]. Washington:Report Preparedby Skumatz Economic Researh Associates Inc,2000.
[7]FOLZ D H,GILES J N. Municipal experience with“pay-as-you-throw”policies:findings from a national survey[J]. State&LocalGovernment Review,2002,34(2):105-115.
[8]KINNAMAN T C,FULLERTON D. Garbage and recycling with endogenous local policy[J]. Journal of Urban Economics,2000,48(3):419-442.
[9]AUER P,PARZKOVL,HADRABOVA. Charging systems for municipal solid waste:experience from the Czech Republic[J]. Waste Management,2008,28(12):2772-2777.
[10]ALLERS M A,HOEBEN C. Effects of unit-based garbage pricing:a differences-in-differences approach[J]. Environmental andResource Economics,2010,45(3):405-428.
[11]GELLYNCK X,JACOBSEN R,VERHELST P. Identifying the key factors in increasing recycling and reducing residualhousehold waste:a case study of the Flemish region of Belgium[J]. Journal of Environmental Management,2011,92(10):2683-2690.
[12]GELLYNCK X,VERHELST P. Assessing instruments for mixed household solid waste collection services in the Flemish regionof Belgium[J]. Resources,Conservation and Recycling,2007,49(4):372-387.
[13]WOODARD R,HARDER M K,BENCH M,et al. Evaluating the performance of a fortnightly collection of household wasteseparated into compostables,recyclates and refuse in the south of England[J]. Resources,Conservation and Recycling,2001,31(3):265-284.
[14]AGDAGO N. Comparison of old and new municipal solid waste management systems in Denizli,Turkey[J]. WasteManagement,2009,29(1):456-464.
[15]MAZZANTI M,MONTINI A,ZOBOLI R. Municipal waste generation and socioeconomic drivers:evidence from comparingnorthern and southern Italy[J]. The Journal of Environment and Development,2008,17(1):51-69.
[16]BERNSTAD A K,LA C J J,ASPEGREN H. Life cycle assessment of a household solid waste source separation programme:aSwedish case study[J]. Waste Management&Research,2011,29(10):1027-1042.
[17]HAN H,ZHANG Z,XIA S. The crowding-out effects of garbage fees and voluntary source separation programs on wastereduction:evidence from china[J]. Sustainability,2016,8(7):678.
[18]HAN H,ZHANG Z. The impact of the policy of municipal solid waste source-separated collection on waste reduction:a casestudy of china[J]. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management,2017,19(1):382-393.
[19]CHARUVICHAIPONG C,SAJOR E. Promoting waste separation for recycling and local governance in Thailand[J]. HabitatInternational,2006,30(3):579-594.
[20]PRETTY J. Social capital and the collective management of resources[J]. Science,2003,302(5652):1912-1914.
[21]HALKOS G E,JONES N. Modeling the effect of social factors on improving biodiversity protection[J]. Ecological Economics,2012,78(4):90-99.
[22]GRAFTON R Q. Social capital and fisheries governance[J]. Ocean&Coastal Management,2005,48(9/10):753-766.
[23]JONES N,CLARK J R A,PANTELI M,et al. Local social capital and the acceptance of protected area policies:an empiricalstudy of two Ramsar river delta ecosystems in northern Greece[J]. Journal of Environmental Management,2012,96(1):55-63.
[24]TESHOME A,GRAAFF J,KESSLER A. Investments in land management in the north-western highlands of Ethiopia:the roleof social capital[J]. Land Use Policy,2016,57(5):215-228.
[25]GRAFTON R Q,KNOWLES S. Social capital and national environmental performance:a cross-sectional analysis[J]. Journal ofEnvironment&Development,2004,13(4):336-370.
[26]DULAL H B,FOA R,KNOWLES S. Social capital and cross-country environmental performance[J]. Journal of Environment&Development,2011,20(2):121-144.
[27]卢宁,李国平.基于EKC框架的社会资本水平对环境质量的影响研究———来自中国1995-2007年面板数据[J].统计研究,2009(5):68-76.
[28]赵雪雁.村域社会资本与环境影响的关系———基于甘肃省村域调查数据[J].自然资源学报,2013(8):1318-1327.
[29]DURLAUF S N,FAFCHAMPS M. Social capital[C]//AGHION P,DURLAUF S N. Social capital in handbook of economicgrowth. Amsterdam:Elsevier,2005:1637-1699.
[30]AL-KHATIB I A,MONOU M,ZAHRA A S F,et al. Solid waste characterization,quantification and management practices indeveloping countries. A case study:Nablus district-Palestine[J]. Journal of Environmental Management,2010,91(5):1131-1138.
[31]LI Z,YANG L,QU X,et al. Municipal solid waste management in Beijing city[J]. Waste Management,2009,29(9):2596-2599.
[32]BENTEZ S O,LOZANO-OLVERA G,MORELOS R A,et al. Mathematical modeling to predict residential solid wastegeneration[J]. Waste Management,2008,28:S7-S13.
[33]QU X,LI Z,XIE X,et al. Survey of composition and generation rate of household wastes in Beijing,china[J]. WasteManagement,2009,29(10):2618-2624.
[34]THANH N P,MATSUI Y,FUJIWARA T. Household solid waste generation and characteristic in a Mekong delta city,Vietnam[J]. Journal of Environmental Management,2010,91(11):2307-2321.
[35]JOHNSTONE N,LABONNE J. Generation of household solid waste in OECD countries:an empirical analysis usingmacroeconomic data[J]. Land Economics,2004,80(4):529-538.
[36]国家统计局.中国统计年鉴[M].北京:中国统计出版社,2015:252.
[37]World Bank. Waste management in China:issues and recommendations[EB/OL].(2005-06-24)[2018-11-26]. http://siteresources. world bank. org/INTEAPREGTOPURBDEV/Resources/China-Waste-Management1. pdf.
[38]ZHANG D Q,KEAT T S,GERSBERG R M. Municipal solid waste management in china:status,problems and challenges[J].Journal of Environmental Management,2010,91(8):1623-1633.
[39]潘越,戴亦一,吴超鹏,等.社会资本、政治关系与公司投资决策[J].经济研究,2009(11):82-94.
[40]PUTNAM R D,LEONARDI R,NANETTI R Y. Making democracy work:civic traditions in modern Italy[M]. Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1993:167-171.
[41]钞小静,任保平.中国经济增长质量的时序变化与地区差异分析[J].经济研究,2011(4):26-40.
[42]赵连阁,钟搏,王学渊.工业污染治理投资的地区就业效应研究[J].中国工业经济,2014(5):70-82.
[43]CHE Y,LU Y,TAO Z,et al. The impact of income on democracy revisited[J]. Journal of Comparative Economics,2013,41(1):159-169.
[44]韦倩,王安,王杰.中国沿海地区的崛起:市场的力量[J].经济研究,2014(8):170-183.
[45]ROODMAN D. How to do xtabond2:an introduction to difference and system gmm in stata[J]. Stata Journal,2009,9(1):86-136.
[46]KINNAMAN T C. Examining the justification for residential recycling[J]. Journal of Economic Perspectives,2006,20(4):219-232.
[47]SUJAUDDIN M,HUDA S M S,HOQUE A T M R. Household solid waste characteristics and management in Chittagong,Bangladesh[J]. Waste Management,2008,28(9):1688-1695.
[48]程名望,JIN Y H,盖庆恩,等.农村减贫:应该更关注教育还是健康?———基于收入增长和差距缩小双重视角的实证[J].经济研究,2014(11):130-144.
[49]MILEVA E. Using arellano-bond dynamic panel gmm estimators in stata[R]. New York:Economics Department,FordhamUniversity,2007.
[50]赵延东.自然灾害中的社会资本研究[J].国外社会科学,2007(4):53-60.
[51]YAMAMURA E. Natural disasters and social capital formation:the impact of the Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake[J]. Papersin Regional Science,2016,95:S143-S164.
[52]OWUSU V,ADJEI-ADDO E,SUNDBERG C. Do economic incentives affect attitudes to solid wastesource separation? Evidence from Ghana[J]. Resources,Conservation and Recycling,2013,78(7):115-123.
[53]BOONROD K,TOWPRAYOON S,BONNET S,et al. Enhancing organic waste separation at the sourcebehavior:a case study of the application of motivation mechanisms in communities in Thailand[J].Resources,Conservation and Recycling,2015,95(12):77-90.
(1)残余垃圾是指不可回收利用的,需要终端焚烧或填埋等处理的垃圾。
(1)捐赠款物合计等于捐赠款数额加上捐赠其他物资价值(不含衣被捐赠),捐赠款物合计以元为单位,而衣被捐赠以件为单位。
(2)八个试点城市分别为北京、南京、上海、杭州、厦门、深圳、广州和桂林。
(3)由于普通高中在校人数部分时期数据的缺失,本文把其剔除。
(1)引自http://news.solidwaste.com.cn/view/id_41375。
(1)社会经济特征变量具体地包括年龄、性别、婚姻状况、受教育程度、家庭规模、家庭收入、工作类别和房屋产权,而环境态度知识变量包括环境态度指数和环保知识指数,限于篇幅,相关变量详细的度量方法和估计结果未能呈现于此,有兴趣的读者可以向作者索取。
[2]PAUDEL K P,SCHAFER M J. The environmental Kuznets curve under a new framework:the role of social capital in waterpollution[J]. Environmental and Resource Economics,2009,42(2):265-278.
[3]IBRAHIM M H,LAW S H. Social capital and CO2 emission—output relations:a panel analysis[J]. Renewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews,2014,29(7):528-534.
[4]KEENE A,DELLER S C. Evidence of the environmental kuznets’curve among US counties and the impact of social capital[J].International Regional Science Review,2015,38(4):358-387.
[5]万建香,梅国平.社会资本可否激励经济增长与环境保护的双赢?[J].数量经济技术经济研究,2012(7):61-75.
[6]SKUMATZ L A. Measuring source reduction:pay as you throw/variable rates as an example[R]. Washington:Report Preparedby Skumatz Economic Researh Associates Inc,2000.
[7]FOLZ D H,GILES J N. Municipal experience with“pay-as-you-throw”policies:findings from a national survey[J]. State&LocalGovernment Review,2002,34(2):105-115.
[8]KINNAMAN T C,FULLERTON D. Garbage and recycling with endogenous local policy[J]. Journal of Urban Economics,2000,48(3):419-442.
[9]AUER P,PARZKOVL,HADRABOVA. Charging systems for municipal solid waste:experience from the Czech Republic[J]. Waste Management,2008,28(12):2772-2777.
[10]ALLERS M A,HOEBEN C. Effects of unit-based garbage pricing:a differences-in-differences approach[J]. Environmental andResource Economics,2010,45(3):405-428.
[11]GELLYNCK X,JACOBSEN R,VERHELST P. Identifying the key factors in increasing recycling and reducing residualhousehold waste:a case study of the Flemish region of Belgium[J]. Journal of Environmental Management,2011,92(10):2683-2690.
[12]GELLYNCK X,VERHELST P. Assessing instruments for mixed household solid waste collection services in the Flemish regionof Belgium[J]. Resources,Conservation and Recycling,2007,49(4):372-387.
[13]WOODARD R,HARDER M K,BENCH M,et al. Evaluating the performance of a fortnightly collection of household wasteseparated into compostables,recyclates and refuse in the south of England[J]. Resources,Conservation and Recycling,2001,31(3):265-284.
[14]AGDAGO N. Comparison of old and new municipal solid waste management systems in Denizli,Turkey[J]. WasteManagement,2009,29(1):456-464.
[15]MAZZANTI M,MONTINI A,ZOBOLI R. Municipal waste generation and socioeconomic drivers:evidence from comparingnorthern and southern Italy[J]. The Journal of Environment and Development,2008,17(1):51-69.
[16]BERNSTAD A K,LA C J J,ASPEGREN H. Life cycle assessment of a household solid waste source separation programme:aSwedish case study[J]. Waste Management&Research,2011,29(10):1027-1042.
[17]HAN H,ZHANG Z,XIA S. The crowding-out effects of garbage fees and voluntary source separation programs on wastereduction:evidence from china[J]. Sustainability,2016,8(7):678.
[18]HAN H,ZHANG Z. The impact of the policy of municipal solid waste source-separated collection on waste reduction:a casestudy of china[J]. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management,2017,19(1):382-393.
[19]CHARUVICHAIPONG C,SAJOR E. Promoting waste separation for recycling and local governance in Thailand[J]. HabitatInternational,2006,30(3):579-594.
[20]PRETTY J. Social capital and the collective management of resources[J]. Science,2003,302(5652):1912-1914.
[21]HALKOS G E,JONES N. Modeling the effect of social factors on improving biodiversity protection[J]. Ecological Economics,2012,78(4):90-99.
[22]GRAFTON R Q. Social capital and fisheries governance[J]. Ocean&Coastal Management,2005,48(9/10):753-766.
[23]JONES N,CLARK J R A,PANTELI M,et al. Local social capital and the acceptance of protected area policies:an empiricalstudy of two Ramsar river delta ecosystems in northern Greece[J]. Journal of Environmental Management,2012,96(1):55-63.
[24]TESHOME A,GRAAFF J,KESSLER A. Investments in land management in the north-western highlands of Ethiopia:the roleof social capital[J]. Land Use Policy,2016,57(5):215-228.
[25]GRAFTON R Q,KNOWLES S. Social capital and national environmental performance:a cross-sectional analysis[J]. Journal ofEnvironment&Development,2004,13(4):336-370.
[26]DULAL H B,FOA R,KNOWLES S. Social capital and cross-country environmental performance[J]. Journal of Environment&Development,2011,20(2):121-144.
[27]卢宁,李国平.基于EKC框架的社会资本水平对环境质量的影响研究———来自中国1995-2007年面板数据[J].统计研究,2009(5):68-76.
[28]赵雪雁.村域社会资本与环境影响的关系———基于甘肃省村域调查数据[J].自然资源学报,2013(8):1318-1327.
[29]DURLAUF S N,FAFCHAMPS M. Social capital[C]//AGHION P,DURLAUF S N. Social capital in handbook of economicgrowth. Amsterdam:Elsevier,2005:1637-1699.
[30]AL-KHATIB I A,MONOU M,ZAHRA A S F,et al. Solid waste characterization,quantification and management practices indeveloping countries. A case study:Nablus district-Palestine[J]. Journal of Environmental Management,2010,91(5):1131-1138.
[31]LI Z,YANG L,QU X,et al. Municipal solid waste management in Beijing city[J]. Waste Management,2009,29(9):2596-2599.
[32]BENTEZ S O,LOZANO-OLVERA G,MORELOS R A,et al. Mathematical modeling to predict residential solid wastegeneration[J]. Waste Management,2008,28:S7-S13.
[33]QU X,LI Z,XIE X,et al. Survey of composition and generation rate of household wastes in Beijing,china[J]. WasteManagement,2009,29(10):2618-2624.
[34]THANH N P,MATSUI Y,FUJIWARA T. Household solid waste generation and characteristic in a Mekong delta city,Vietnam[J]. Journal of Environmental Management,2010,91(11):2307-2321.
[35]JOHNSTONE N,LABONNE J. Generation of household solid waste in OECD countries:an empirical analysis usingmacroeconomic data[J]. Land Economics,2004,80(4):529-538.
[36]国家统计局.中国统计年鉴[M].北京:中国统计出版社,2015:252.
[37]World Bank. Waste management in China:issues and recommendations[EB/OL].(2005-06-24)[2018-11-26]. http://siteresources. world bank. org/INTEAPREGTOPURBDEV/Resources/China-Waste-Management1. pdf.
[38]ZHANG D Q,KEAT T S,GERSBERG R M. Municipal solid waste management in china:status,problems and challenges[J].Journal of Environmental Management,2010,91(8):1623-1633.
[39]潘越,戴亦一,吴超鹏,等.社会资本、政治关系与公司投资决策[J].经济研究,2009(11):82-94.
[40]PUTNAM R D,LEONARDI R,NANETTI R Y. Making democracy work:civic traditions in modern Italy[M]. Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1993:167-171.
[41]钞小静,任保平.中国经济增长质量的时序变化与地区差异分析[J].经济研究,2011(4):26-40.
[42]赵连阁,钟搏,王学渊.工业污染治理投资的地区就业效应研究[J].中国工业经济,2014(5):70-82.
[43]CHE Y,LU Y,TAO Z,et al. The impact of income on democracy revisited[J]. Journal of Comparative Economics,2013,41(1):159-169.
[44]韦倩,王安,王杰.中国沿海地区的崛起:市场的力量[J].经济研究,2014(8):170-183.
[45]ROODMAN D. How to do xtabond2:an introduction to difference and system gmm in stata[J]. Stata Journal,2009,9(1):86-136.
[46]KINNAMAN T C. Examining the justification for residential recycling[J]. Journal of Economic Perspectives,2006,20(4):219-232.
[47]SUJAUDDIN M,HUDA S M S,HOQUE A T M R. Household solid waste characteristics and management in Chittagong,Bangladesh[J]. Waste Management,2008,28(9):1688-1695.
[48]程名望,JIN Y H,盖庆恩,等.农村减贫:应该更关注教育还是健康?———基于收入增长和差距缩小双重视角的实证[J].经济研究,2014(11):130-144.
[49]MILEVA E. Using arellano-bond dynamic panel gmm estimators in stata[R]. New York:Economics Department,FordhamUniversity,2007.
[50]赵延东.自然灾害中的社会资本研究[J].国外社会科学,2007(4):53-60.
[51]YAMAMURA E. Natural disasters and social capital formation:the impact of the Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake[J]. Papersin Regional Science,2016,95:S143-S164.
[52]OWUSU V,ADJEI-ADDO E,SUNDBERG C. Do economic incentives affect attitudes to solid wastesource separation? Evidence from Ghana[J]. Resources,Conservation and Recycling,2013,78(7):115-123.
[53]BOONROD K,TOWPRAYOON S,BONNET S,et al. Enhancing organic waste separation at the sourcebehavior:a case study of the application of motivation mechanisms in communities in Thailand[J].Resources,Conservation and Recycling,2015,95(12):77-90.
(1)残余垃圾是指不可回收利用的,需要终端焚烧或填埋等处理的垃圾。
(1)捐赠款物合计等于捐赠款数额加上捐赠其他物资价值(不含衣被捐赠),捐赠款物合计以元为单位,而衣被捐赠以件为单位。
(2)八个试点城市分别为北京、南京、上海、杭州、厦门、深圳、广州和桂林。
(3)由于普通高中在校人数部分时期数据的缺失,本文把其剔除。
(1)引自http://news.solidwaste.com.cn/view/id_41375。
(1)社会经济特征变量具体地包括年龄、性别、婚姻状况、受教育程度、家庭规模、家庭收入、工作类别和房屋产权,而环境态度知识变量包括环境态度指数和环保知识指数,限于篇幅,相关变量详细的度量方法和估计结果未能呈现于此,有兴趣的读者可以向作者索取。