约翰逊政府有关部署反导系统的争论及决策
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摘要
美国约翰逊政府时期,在国防战略调整及美苏核军备竞赛加剧的背景下,军方与政府各相关部门就奈基X反导系统的部署问题展开了长期而热烈的争论。以参谋长联席会议为代表的军方极力要求政府以奈基X反导系统为基础,部署保卫大城市的全面反导系统,这一主张得到国会较多数议员的支持。而以国防部长麦克纳马拉为代表的文职国防官员依赖"确保摧毁"的威慑战略来保障国家安全,反对立即部署反导系统,只支持继续进行研发。约翰逊总统起初也倾向暂不部署反导系统,希望争取与苏联就限制部署反导系统达成协议。由于苏联以及中国战略核力量的发展,特别是苏联在莫斯科进行反导系统建设的进展,给约翰逊政府造成较大的国内外压力,加之当时苏联政府对就限制部署反导系统达成协议并不积极,在以上形势下,出于对内政治因素和对外安全及对苏外交的考虑,最终约翰逊政府决定在部分区域有针对性地部署有限规模的反导系统。这是美国历史上首次正式做出部署反导系统的决定,对后来美国的反导部署政策有着不可忽视的影响。
During the time of the Johnson administration,U. S. military and the government had heated and long-lasting debates on the deployment of the Nike-X ABM system against the backdrop of national defense strategy adjustment. The Johnson administration finally decided to deploy a limited ABM system in some selected regions for such reasons: internal political struggle,intention to force the Soviets to join in the arms control negotiation,and defense against the third party's missile strike. This was the first official ABM deployment decision in American history,which deeply influenced America's ABM deployment policy afterwards.
During the time of the Johnson administration,U. S. military and the government had heated and long-lasting debates on the deployment of the Nike-X ABM system against the backdrop of national defense strategy adjustment. The Johnson administration finally decided to deploy a limited ABM system in some selected regions for such reasons: internal political struggle,intention to force the Soviets to join in the arms control negotiation,and defense against the third party's missile strike. This was the first official ABM deployment decision in American history,which deeply influenced America's ABM deployment policy afterwards.
引文
①⑦[美]斯蒂文·瑞尔登:《美国参谋长联席会议史(1942-1991)》,许秀芬等译,北京:世界知识出版社,2015年,第272-273页;第187页。
②王玮、戴超武:《美国外交思想史:1775-2005年》,北京:人民出版社,2007年,第451页。
③北极星A1(Polaris A1):二级固体燃料导弹,射程2222公里,单弹头,60万吨TNT当量,圆概率误差1 852米,1960年服役;北极星A2(Polaris A2):二级固体燃料导弹,射程2778公里,单弹头,80万吨TNT当量,圆概率误差926米,1962年服役;北极星A3(Polaris A3):二级固体燃料导弹,射程4630公里,集束式弹头,3个20万吨TNT当量分导弹头,圆概率误差926米,1964年服役。
④Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 6,1963,see Department of State,Foreign Relations of the United States,1961-1963,VolumeⅧ,National Security Policy,Washington:U.S.Government Printing Office,1996,pp.545-549.Hereinafter cited as FRUS,1961-1963,Vo1.8.
⑤⑥Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 6,1963,see FRUS,1961-1963,Vol.8,p.549;p.550.
①Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 22,1966,see U.S.Department of State,Foreign Relations of the United States,1964-1968,Volume X,National Security Policy,Washington:Government Printing Office,1996,PP.490-492.Hereinafter cited as FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10.
②[美]斯蒂文·瑞尔登:《美国参谋长联席会议史(1942-1991)》,第190页。巧合的是从1960年10月到1970年7月,三任参联会主席都是陆军将领,分别是莱姆尼泽(Lyman Lemnitzer)(1960.10-1962.09)、泰勒(1962.10-1964.07)、惠勒(1964.07-1970.07)。
③④Memorandum From the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff(Taylor)to Secretary of Defense McNamara,Washington,March 20,1964,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,p.63;pp.178-479.
⑤Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 22,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,p:492.
⑥Ashton B.Carter and David N.Schwartz eds.,Ballistic Missile Defense,Washington:The Brookings Institution,1984,p.333.
⑦Morton Halperin,"The Decision to Deploy the ABM:Bureaucratic and Domestic Politics in the Johnson Administration,"World Politics,Vol.25,No.1(Oct.,1972),p.74.
①SS-9:二级液体燃料导弹,射程12000公里,有4种型号。SS-9(1、2、4)圆概率误差850米,SS-9(1)单弹头,2000万吨TNT当量。SS-9(2)单弹头,2500万吨TNT当量,SS-9(4)可搭载3个500万吨TNT当量分导弹头。SS-9(3)为三级导弹,低弹道飞行,携带常规弹头或核弹头,圆概率误差900-1500米。SS-N-5:单级液体燃料导弹,射程1400公里,单弹头,100万吨TNT当量,圆概率误差2800米。
②NIE 11-8-62,Washington,July 6,1962,see FRUS,1961-1963,Vol.8,pp.339-340.
③Barry Leonard,ed.,History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense,volumeⅡ(1956-1972),U.S.Army Center of Military History,2010,p.271.
④该系统后来到1968年实际部署64套,见Donald R.Baucom,The Origins of SDI,1944-1983,Lawrence:University Press of Kansas,1992,p.30
⑤Ernest J.Yanarella,The Missile Defense Controversy:Strategy,Technology,and Politics,1955-1972,Lexington:University Press of Kentucky,1977,pp.92-93.转引自斯蒂文·瑞尔登:《美国参谋长联席会议史(1942-1991)》,第274页。
⑥Memorandum From Secretary of Defense McNamara to the Director of Defense Research and Engineering,Department of Defense(Foster),Washington,October 22,1965,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.272 273.
①民兵Ⅰ(MinutemanⅠ):三级固体燃料导弹,有A型和B型两种均为单弹头,A型射程8 000公里,60万吨TNT当量弹头,圆概率误差1800米,1962年12月服役,1969年退役;B型射程10140公里,100万吨TNT当量弹头,圆概率误差1 600米,1963年7月服役,1974年退役民兵Ⅱ(MinutemanⅡ):三级固体燃料导弹,射程12500公里,单弹头,120万吨TNT当量,圆概率误差560米,1965年10月服役,1995年退役。民兵Ⅲ(MinutemanⅢ):三级固体燃料导弹,射程13000公里,第一批1970年6月开始服役,分导式弹头,3个17.5万吨TNT当量弹头,圆概率误差370米,至今仍在服役。
②海神导弹:二级固体燃料潜射导弹,射程4630公里,携带10个4万吨TNT当量分导弹头,圆概率误差463米,1971年服役,已退役。
③④Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,November 1,1965,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.284 286;pp.286 288.
⑤⑥Report Prepared by the Strategic Military Panel of the President's Science Advisory Committee,Washington,October 29,1965,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.274 275;278-279;p.282.
⑦Memorandum From the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense McNamara,Washington,November 6,1965,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.322 324.
①Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 22,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,p.492.
②Memorandum From the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff(Wheeler)to Secretary of Defense McNamara,Washington,undated,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.368-369.
③Paper Prepared in the Department of Defense,Washington,undated,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,p.192.
④Memorandum From President Johnson to Secretary of Defense McNamara,June 18,1964,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.96-97.
⑤陆军为该系统配备了最新的斯巴达(Spartan)反导导弹,可在280海里高度攻击来袭导弹。如果哨兵与之前已配备的末端高速防御导弹——短跑(Sprint)高低搭配,在首次运用的相控阵雷达的配合下,可在大气层内外联合防御来袭导弹。其主要创新和优势在于相控阵雷达比之前的“奈基—宙斯”手动雷达系统更快、更准确,可追踪多个目标并引导拦截导弹攻击。
⑥Draft Memorandum From Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 22,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.491192.
⑦SS-11:二级液体燃料导弹,有3种型号。其中SS-11(1):F 1966年服役,射程10000公里,单弹头,100万吨TNT当量,圆概率误差1400米。
①②④Draft Notes of Meeting,Austin,Texas,December 6,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.460-461;pp.461-462;pp.462-463.
③这些人不仅是参议员,而且还都是约翰逊的密友,白宫需要他们继续合作来应对越来越高的针对政府的越南政策的反对声。Morton Halperin,Bureaucratic Politics and Foreign Policy,Washington,DC:Brookings Institution,1974,p.298.转引自[美]斯蒂文·瑞尔登:《美国参谋长联席会议史(1942-1991)》,第277页。
⑤Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 22,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.483-484.
①Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 22,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.508 509.
②Memorandum from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense McNamara,Washington,December 29,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.510 511.
③Text of President Johnson's State of Union,The New York Times,January 11,1967,p.6,see Barry Leonard,ed.,History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense,VolumeⅡ,1956-1972,p.206.
④Record of Meeting with President Johnson,Washington,January 4,1967,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.526 531.
⑤Editorial Note,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp,531 533
①“Annual Budget Message to the Congress,Fiscal Year 1968,”January 24,1967,Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:Lyndon B.Johnson,1967(Washington,DC:GPO,1968),PtⅠ,48。转引自[美]斯蒂文·瑞尔登:《美国参谋长联席会议史(1942-1991)》,第278页。
②Telegram From the Department of State to the Mission to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and European Regional Organizations,Department of State,Foreign Relations of the United States,1964-1968,VolumeⅧ,West Europe Region,Washington:U.S.Government Printing Office,1995,p.556.
③Paper Prepared by the Executive Secretary of the Department of State(Read),Washington,February 21,1968,see Department of State,Foreign Relations of the United States,1964-1968,Volume XIV,Soviet Union,Washington:U.S.Government Printing Office,2001,pp.564-566.Hereinafter cited as FRUS,1964-1968,vol.14.
④[美]弗拉季斯拉夫·祖博克:《失败的帝国:从斯大林到戈尔巴乔夫》,李晓江译,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2014年,第269页。
⑤Memorandum of Conversation,Glassboro,New Jersey,June 25,1967,see FRUS,1964-1968,vol.14,p.540.
⑥Barry Leonard,ed.,History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense,VolumeⅡ,1956-1972,p.209.
①Morton Halperin,"The Decision to Deploy the ABM:Bureaucratic and Domestic Politics in the Johnson Administration,'World Politics,Vol.25,No.1(Oct.,1972),p.87.
②③Editorial Note,see FRUS,1964-1968,vol.14,pp.614-617;pp.615,618.
④Memorandum of Conversation,Washington,September 12,1967,see FRUS,1964-1968,vol.14,pp.608-610.
⑤Robert McNamara,"The Dynamics of Nuclear Strategy,”Department of State Bulletin,October 9,1967,pp.443-451,cited from Morton Halperin,"The Decision to Deploy the ABM:Bureaucratic and Domestic Politics in the Johnson Administration,”World Politics,Vol.25,No.1(Oct.,1972),pp.62-64.
①首批10处地点是奥尔巴尼、佐治亚芝加哥、达拉斯、纽约市、盐湖城、瓦胡岛、西雅图、波士顿、底特律和格兰德福克斯空军基地。原计划的17处地点中12处是人口聚居的大城市,1处是首都华盛顿,4处是部署民兵导弹的战略空军基地。
②Barry Leonard,ed.,History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense,VolumeⅡ,1956-1972,pp.212-214.
③[美]亨利·基辛格:《白宫岁月——基辛格回忆录》,吴继淦等译,北京:世界知识出版社,1980年,第258页。
①Morton Halperin,"The Decision to Deploy the ABM:Bureaucratic and Domestic Politics in the Johnson Administration,"World Politics,Vol.25,No.1(Oct.,1972).
②McGeorge Bundy,Danger and Survival-Choices about the Bomb in the First Fifty Years,New York:Random House,Inc.,1988,p.352.
③John Kennedy,State of the Union Address,January 30,1961,cited from William Kaufmann,The McNamara Strategy,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1964,pp.47-48,
②王玮、戴超武:《美国外交思想史:1775-2005年》,北京:人民出版社,2007年,第451页。
③北极星A1(Polaris A1):二级固体燃料导弹,射程2222公里,单弹头,60万吨TNT当量,圆概率误差1 852米,1960年服役;北极星A2(Polaris A2):二级固体燃料导弹,射程2778公里,单弹头,80万吨TNT当量,圆概率误差926米,1962年服役;北极星A3(Polaris A3):二级固体燃料导弹,射程4630公里,集束式弹头,3个20万吨TNT当量分导弹头,圆概率误差926米,1964年服役。
④Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 6,1963,see Department of State,Foreign Relations of the United States,1961-1963,VolumeⅧ,National Security Policy,Washington:U.S.Government Printing Office,1996,pp.545-549.Hereinafter cited as FRUS,1961-1963,Vo1.8.
⑤⑥Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 6,1963,see FRUS,1961-1963,Vol.8,p.549;p.550.
①Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 22,1966,see U.S.Department of State,Foreign Relations of the United States,1964-1968,Volume X,National Security Policy,Washington:Government Printing Office,1996,PP.490-492.Hereinafter cited as FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10.
②[美]斯蒂文·瑞尔登:《美国参谋长联席会议史(1942-1991)》,第190页。巧合的是从1960年10月到1970年7月,三任参联会主席都是陆军将领,分别是莱姆尼泽(Lyman Lemnitzer)(1960.10-1962.09)、泰勒(1962.10-1964.07)、惠勒(1964.07-1970.07)。
③④Memorandum From the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff(Taylor)to Secretary of Defense McNamara,Washington,March 20,1964,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,p.63;pp.178-479.
⑤Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 22,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,p:492.
⑥Ashton B.Carter and David N.Schwartz eds.,Ballistic Missile Defense,Washington:The Brookings Institution,1984,p.333.
⑦Morton Halperin,"The Decision to Deploy the ABM:Bureaucratic and Domestic Politics in the Johnson Administration,"World Politics,Vol.25,No.1(Oct.,1972),p.74.
①SS-9:二级液体燃料导弹,射程12000公里,有4种型号。SS-9(1、2、4)圆概率误差850米,SS-9(1)单弹头,2000万吨TNT当量。SS-9(2)单弹头,2500万吨TNT当量,SS-9(4)可搭载3个500万吨TNT当量分导弹头。SS-9(3)为三级导弹,低弹道飞行,携带常规弹头或核弹头,圆概率误差900-1500米。SS-N-5:单级液体燃料导弹,射程1400公里,单弹头,100万吨TNT当量,圆概率误差2800米。
②NIE 11-8-62,Washington,July 6,1962,see FRUS,1961-1963,Vol.8,pp.339-340.
③Barry Leonard,ed.,History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense,volumeⅡ(1956-1972),U.S.Army Center of Military History,2010,p.271.
④该系统后来到1968年实际部署64套,见Donald R.Baucom,The Origins of SDI,1944-1983,Lawrence:University Press of Kansas,1992,p.30
⑤Ernest J.Yanarella,The Missile Defense Controversy:Strategy,Technology,and Politics,1955-1972,Lexington:University Press of Kentucky,1977,pp.92-93.转引自斯蒂文·瑞尔登:《美国参谋长联席会议史(1942-1991)》,第274页。
⑥Memorandum From Secretary of Defense McNamara to the Director of Defense Research and Engineering,Department of Defense(Foster),Washington,October 22,1965,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.272 273.
①民兵Ⅰ(MinutemanⅠ):三级固体燃料导弹,有A型和B型两种均为单弹头,A型射程8 000公里,60万吨TNT当量弹头,圆概率误差1800米,1962年12月服役,1969年退役;B型射程10140公里,100万吨TNT当量弹头,圆概率误差1 600米,1963年7月服役,1974年退役民兵Ⅱ(MinutemanⅡ):三级固体燃料导弹,射程12500公里,单弹头,120万吨TNT当量,圆概率误差560米,1965年10月服役,1995年退役。民兵Ⅲ(MinutemanⅢ):三级固体燃料导弹,射程13000公里,第一批1970年6月开始服役,分导式弹头,3个17.5万吨TNT当量弹头,圆概率误差370米,至今仍在服役。
②海神导弹:二级固体燃料潜射导弹,射程4630公里,携带10个4万吨TNT当量分导弹头,圆概率误差463米,1971年服役,已退役。
③④Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,November 1,1965,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.284 286;pp.286 288.
⑤⑥Report Prepared by the Strategic Military Panel of the President's Science Advisory Committee,Washington,October 29,1965,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.274 275;278-279;p.282.
⑦Memorandum From the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense McNamara,Washington,November 6,1965,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.322 324.
①Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 22,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,p.492.
②Memorandum From the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff(Wheeler)to Secretary of Defense McNamara,Washington,undated,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.368-369.
③Paper Prepared in the Department of Defense,Washington,undated,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,p.192.
④Memorandum From President Johnson to Secretary of Defense McNamara,June 18,1964,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.96-97.
⑤陆军为该系统配备了最新的斯巴达(Spartan)反导导弹,可在280海里高度攻击来袭导弹。如果哨兵与之前已配备的末端高速防御导弹——短跑(Sprint)高低搭配,在首次运用的相控阵雷达的配合下,可在大气层内外联合防御来袭导弹。其主要创新和优势在于相控阵雷达比之前的“奈基—宙斯”手动雷达系统更快、更准确,可追踪多个目标并引导拦截导弹攻击。
⑥Draft Memorandum From Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 22,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.491192.
⑦SS-11:二级液体燃料导弹,有3种型号。其中SS-11(1):F 1966年服役,射程10000公里,单弹头,100万吨TNT当量,圆概率误差1400米。
①②④Draft Notes of Meeting,Austin,Texas,December 6,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.460-461;pp.461-462;pp.462-463.
③这些人不仅是参议员,而且还都是约翰逊的密友,白宫需要他们继续合作来应对越来越高的针对政府的越南政策的反对声。Morton Halperin,Bureaucratic Politics and Foreign Policy,Washington,DC:Brookings Institution,1974,p.298.转引自[美]斯蒂文·瑞尔登:《美国参谋长联席会议史(1942-1991)》,第277页。
⑤Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 22,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.483-484.
①Draft Memorandum from Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson,Washington,December 22,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.508 509.
②Memorandum from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense McNamara,Washington,December 29,1966,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.510 511.
③Text of President Johnson's State of Union,The New York Times,January 11,1967,p.6,see Barry Leonard,ed.,History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense,VolumeⅡ,1956-1972,p.206.
④Record of Meeting with President Johnson,Washington,January 4,1967,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp.526 531.
⑤Editorial Note,see FRUS,1964-1968,Vol.10,pp,531 533
①“Annual Budget Message to the Congress,Fiscal Year 1968,”January 24,1967,Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:Lyndon B.Johnson,1967(Washington,DC:GPO,1968),PtⅠ,48。转引自[美]斯蒂文·瑞尔登:《美国参谋长联席会议史(1942-1991)》,第278页。
②Telegram From the Department of State to the Mission to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and European Regional Organizations,Department of State,Foreign Relations of the United States,1964-1968,VolumeⅧ,West Europe Region,Washington:U.S.Government Printing Office,1995,p.556.
③Paper Prepared by the Executive Secretary of the Department of State(Read),Washington,February 21,1968,see Department of State,Foreign Relations of the United States,1964-1968,Volume XIV,Soviet Union,Washington:U.S.Government Printing Office,2001,pp.564-566.Hereinafter cited as FRUS,1964-1968,vol.14.
④[美]弗拉季斯拉夫·祖博克:《失败的帝国:从斯大林到戈尔巴乔夫》,李晓江译,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2014年,第269页。
⑤Memorandum of Conversation,Glassboro,New Jersey,June 25,1967,see FRUS,1964-1968,vol.14,p.540.
⑥Barry Leonard,ed.,History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense,VolumeⅡ,1956-1972,p.209.
①Morton Halperin,"The Decision to Deploy the ABM:Bureaucratic and Domestic Politics in the Johnson Administration,'World Politics,Vol.25,No.1(Oct.,1972),p.87.
②③Editorial Note,see FRUS,1964-1968,vol.14,pp.614-617;pp.615,618.
④Memorandum of Conversation,Washington,September 12,1967,see FRUS,1964-1968,vol.14,pp.608-610.
⑤Robert McNamara,"The Dynamics of Nuclear Strategy,”Department of State Bulletin,October 9,1967,pp.443-451,cited from Morton Halperin,"The Decision to Deploy the ABM:Bureaucratic and Domestic Politics in the Johnson Administration,”World Politics,Vol.25,No.1(Oct.,1972),pp.62-64.
①首批10处地点是奥尔巴尼、佐治亚芝加哥、达拉斯、纽约市、盐湖城、瓦胡岛、西雅图、波士顿、底特律和格兰德福克斯空军基地。原计划的17处地点中12处是人口聚居的大城市,1处是首都华盛顿,4处是部署民兵导弹的战略空军基地。
②Barry Leonard,ed.,History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense,VolumeⅡ,1956-1972,pp.212-214.
③[美]亨利·基辛格:《白宫岁月——基辛格回忆录》,吴继淦等译,北京:世界知识出版社,1980年,第258页。
①Morton Halperin,"The Decision to Deploy the ABM:Bureaucratic and Domestic Politics in the Johnson Administration,"World Politics,Vol.25,No.1(Oct.,1972).
②McGeorge Bundy,Danger and Survival-Choices about the Bomb in the First Fifty Years,New York:Random House,Inc.,1988,p.352.
③John Kennedy,State of the Union Address,January 30,1961,cited from William Kaufmann,The McNamara Strategy,New York:Harper&Row,Publishers,1964,pp.47-48,