远离“诱惑”:预先承诺对跨期决策的调控机制及其神经基础
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摘要
预先承诺作为一种有效的自我控制策略,主要通过提前排除那些在未来决策中可能会诱使个体做出冲动决策的选项,以达到降低决策冲动性的目的。预先承诺调控跨期决策主要是通过侧额极皮层(LFPC)、背外侧前额叶(DLPFC)、腹内侧前额叶(vmPFC)、后顶叶皮层(PPC)等脑区的共同激活,在自我控制、价值估算、特质冲动性、惩罚敏感度等心理变量的影响下发挥作用。本研究分别从认知机制和神经基础两个方面提出预先承诺降低冲动决策的整合模型,为干预和降低个体决策冲动性提供理论借鉴。未来研究可进一步探究预先承诺调控跨期决策的心理与神经机制,并加强预先承诺在决策领域的应用研究。
Pre-commitment, as an effective self-control strategy, can reduce the impulsivity of decisionmaking primarily through precluding the options in advance that may prompt individuals to make impulsive decisions. Pre-commitment regulates the intertemporal choice primarily via activating the lateral frontopolar cortex(LFPC), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC), ventromedial prefrontal cortex(vmPFC) and posterior parietal cortex(PPC), which is also affected by self-control, value estimation, trait impulsivity, punishment sensitivity and other relevant psychological processes. This study proposes an integrated model, which contains cognitive mechanism and neural basis for the role of pre-commitment in reducing impulsive decision-making. The model provides theoretical foundation and important implications for reducing impulsive decision-making. Future research should continue to examine the psychological and neural mechanisms for the regulatory role of pre-commitment in intertemporal choice. Additionally, it is significant to investigate how pre-commitment impacts decision making in applied research.
Pre-commitment, as an effective self-control strategy, can reduce the impulsivity of decisionmaking primarily through precluding the options in advance that may prompt individuals to make impulsive decisions. Pre-commitment regulates the intertemporal choice primarily via activating the lateral frontopolar cortex(LFPC), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC), ventromedial prefrontal cortex(vmPFC) and posterior parietal cortex(PPC), which is also affected by self-control, value estimation, trait impulsivity, punishment sensitivity and other relevant psychological processes. This study proposes an integrated model, which contains cognitive mechanism and neural basis for the role of pre-commitment in reducing impulsive decision-making. The model provides theoretical foundation and important implications for reducing impulsive decision-making. Future research should continue to examine the psychological and neural mechanisms for the regulatory role of pre-commitment in intertemporal choice. Additionally, it is significant to investigate how pre-commitment impacts decision making in applied research.
引文
窦凯,聂衍刚,王玉洁,黎建斌.(2014).自我损耗促进冒险行为.心理科学,37(1),150-155.
窦凯,聂衍刚,王玉洁,黎建斌,沈汪兵.(2014).自我损耗促进冲动决策:来自行为和ERPs的证据.心理学报,46(10),1564-1579.
何贵兵,陈海贤,林静.(2009).跨期选择中的反常现象及其心理机制.应用心理学,15,298-305.
梁竹苑,刘欢.(2011).跨期选择的性质探索.心理科学进展,19(7),959-966.
刘洪志,江程铭,饶俪琳,李纾.(2015).“时间折扣”还是“单维占优”?--跨期决策的心理机制.心理学报,47(4),522-532.
汪强,张恩茂.(2015).降低决策冲动性的方法及其神经机制.心理科学进展,23(1),101-109.
Ainslie,G.(1975).Specious reward:A behavioral theory of impulsiveness and impulse control.Psychological Bulletin,82(4),463-496.
Anjali,R.B.,Rafael,P.,Hare,T.A.,&Ruff,C.C.(2015).Transcranial stimulation over frontopolar cortex elucidates the choice attributes and neural mechanisms used to resolve exploration-exploitation trade-offs.Journal of Neuroscience,35(43),14544-14556.
Ariely,D.,&Wertenbroch,K.(2002).Procrastination,deadlines,and performance:Self-control by precommitment.Psychological Science,13(3),219-224.
Banfield,G.D.(2009).Simulation of self-control through precommitment behaviour in an evolutionary system.(Unpublished Doctorial Dissertation).University of London.
Boorman,E.D.,Behrens,T.E.J,&Rushworth,M.F.(2011).Counterfactual choice and learning in a neural network centered on human lateral frontopolar cortex.PLOSBiology,9(6),e1001093.
Boorman,E.D.,Behrens,T.E.J.,Woolrich,M.W.,&Rushworth,M.F.S.(2009).How green is the grass on the other side?Frontopolar cortex and the evidence in favor of alternative courses of action.Neuron,62(5),733-743.
Boschin,E.A.,&Buckley,M.J.(2015).Differential contributions of dorsolateral and frontopolar cortices to working memory processes in the primate.Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience,9,144.
Brevers,D.,Noel,X.,Clark,L.,Zyuzin,J.,Justin Park,J.,&Bechara,A.(2016).The impact of precommitment on risk-taking while gambling:A preliminary study.Journal of Behavioral Addictions,5(1),51-58.
Christodoulou,C.,Banfield,G.,&Cleanthous,A.(2010).Self-control with spiking and non-spiking neural networks playing games.Journal of Physiology-Paris,104(3-4),108-117.
Collazos,C.A.,Guerrero,L.A.,Pino,J.A.,Renzi,S.,Klobas,J.,Ortega,M.,...Bravo,C.(2007).Suporting online material self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system.Educational Technology and Society,10(3),257-274.
Crockett,M.J.,Braams,B.R.,Clark,L.,Tobler,P.N.,Robbins,T.W.,&Kalenscher,T.(2013).Restricting temptations:Neural mechanisms of precommitment.Neuron,79(2),391-401.
Daw,N.D.,O'Doherty,J.P.,Dayan,P.,Seymour,B.,&Dolan,R.J.(2006).Cortical substrates for exploratory decisions in humans.Nature,441,876-879.
Dom,G.,D’Haene,P.,Hulstijn,W.,&Sabbe,B.(2006).Impulsivity in abstinent early-and late-onset alcoholics:Differences in self-report measures and a discounting task.Addiction,101(1),50-59.
Figner,B.,Knoch,D.,Johnson,E.J.,Krosch,A.R.,Lisanby,S.H.,Fehr,E.,&Weber,E.U.(2010).Lateral prefrontal cortex and self-control in intertemporal choice.Nature Neuroscience,13,538-539.
Franken,I.H.A.,&Muris,P.(2005).Individual differences in decision-making.Personality and Individual Differences,39(5),991-998.
Frederick,S.,Loewenstein,G.,&O'Donoghue,T.(2002).Time discounting and time preference:A critical review.Journal of Economic Literature,40(2),351-401.
Green,A.E.,Spiegel,K.A.,Giangrande,E.J.,Weinberger,A.B.,Gallagher,N.M.,&Turkeltaub,P.E.(2017).Thinking cap plus thinking zap:tDCS of frontopolar cortex improves creative analogical reasoning and facilitates conscious augmentation of state creativity in verb generation.Cerebral Cortex,27(4),2628-2639.
Hao,Q.,Branch,R.M.,&Jensen,L.(2016).The effect of precommitment on student achievement within a technology-rich project-based learning environment.Techtrends,60(5),442-448.
Hare,T.A.,Camerer,C.F.,&Rangel,A.(2009).Self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system.Science,324(5927),646-648.
Hare,T.A.,Hakimi,S.,&Rangel,A.(2014).Activity in dlPFC and its effective connectivity to vmPFC are associated with temporal discounting.Frontiers in Neuroscience,8,50.
Hare,T.A.,O'Doherty,J.,Camerer,C.F.,Schultz,W.,&Rangel,A.(2008).Dissociating the role of the orbitofrontal cortex and the striatum in the computation of goal values and prediction errors.Journal of Neuroscience,28(22),5623-5630.
Hyafil,A.,&Koechlin,E.(2016).A neurocomputational model of human frontopolar cortex function.Retrieved Jan22,2016,from http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/037150
Jimura,K.,Chushak,M.S.,&Braver,T.S.(2013).Impulsivity and self-control during intertemporal decision making linked to the neural dynamics of reward value representation.Journal of Neuroscience,33(1),344-357.
Kable,J.W.,&Glimcher,P.W.(2007).The neural correlates of subjective value during intertemporal choice.Nature Neuroscience,10,1625-1633.
Kalenscher,T.,&Pennartz,C.M.A.(2008).Is a bird in the hand worth two in the future?The neuroeconomics of intertemporal decision-making.Progress in Neurobiology,84(3),284-315.
Kim,D.Y.,&Lee,J.H.(2011).Effects of the BAS and BISon decision-making in a gambling task.Personality and Individual Differences,50(7),1131-1135.
Kurth-Nelson,Z.,&Redish,A.D.(2010).A reinforcement learning model of precommitment in decision making.Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience,4,184.
Kurth-Nelson,Z.,&Redish,A.D.(2012).Don’t let me do that!-Models of precommitment.Frontiers in Neuroscience,6,138.
Ladouceur,R.,Blaszczynski,A.,&Lalande,D.R.(2012).Pre-commitment in gambling:A review of the empirical evidence.International Gambling Studies,12(2),215-230.
Laibson,D.(1997).Golden eggs and hyperbolic discounting.Quarterly Journal of Economics,112(2),443-478.
Layton,R.L.(2014).Public and private goal commitment:Self-control and choice.(Unpublished doctorial dissertation)State University of New York,3629133.
Loewenstein,G.(1996).Out of control:Visceral influences on behavior.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,65(3),272-292.
MacKillop,J.,Weafer,J.,Gray,J.C.,Oshri,A.,Palmer,A.,&Wit,H.D.(2016).The latent structure of impulsivity:Impulsive choice,impulsive action,and impulsive personality traits.Psychopharmacology,233(18),3361-3370.
De Martino,B.,Fleming,S.M.,Garrett,N.,&Dolan,R.J.(2013).Confidence in value-based choice.Nature Neuroscience,16,105-110.
Mazur,J.E.(1984).Tests of an equivalence rule for fixed and variable reinforcer delays.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Animal Behavior Processes,10(4),426-436.
McClure,S.M.,Laibson,D.I.,Loewenstein,G.,&Cohen,J.D.(2004).Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards.Science,306(5695),503-507.
McNamee,D.,Rangel,A.,&O'Doherty,J.P.(2013).Category-dependent and category-independent goal-value codes in human ventromedial prefrontal cortex.Nature Neuroscience,16,479-485.
O'Donnell,S.,Daniel,T.O.,&Epstein,L.H.(2017).Does goal relevant episodic future thinking amplify the effect on delay discounting?Consciousness and Cognition,51,10-16.
Paniukov,D.,&Davis,T.(2017).The integrative role of frontopolar cortex in rule-based category learning.Retrieved Feb 8,2017,from https://www.biorxiv.org/content/early/2017/02/08/107110
Peters,J.,&Büchel,C.(2010).Episodic future thinking reduces reward delay discounting through an enhancement of prefrontal-mediotemporal interactions.Neuron,66(1),138-148.
Rachlin,H.(1995).Self-control:Beyond commitment.Behavioral and Brain Sciences,18(1),109-121.
Rachlin,H.,&Green,L.(1972).Commitment,choice and self-control.Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior,17(1),15-22.
Rushworth,M.F.S.,Noonan,M.A.P.,Boorman,E.D.,Walton,M.E.,&Behrens,T.E.(2011).Frontal cortex and reward-guided learning and decision-making.Neuron,70(6),1054-1069.
Schwartz,J.,Mochon,D.,Wyper,L.,Maroba,J.,Patel,D.,&Ariely,D.(2014).Healthier by precommitment.Psychological Science,25(2),538-546.
Smith,A.P.,Marshall,A.T.,&Kirkpatrick,K.(2015).Mechanisms of impulsive choice:II.Time-based interventions to improve self-control.Behavioural Processes,112,29-42.
Smith,D.V.,Clithero,J.A.,Boltuck,S.E.,&Huettel,S.A.(2014).Functional connectivity with ventromedial prefrontal cortex reflects subjective value for social rewards.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,9(12),2017-2025.
Sokol-Hessner,P.,Hutcherson,C.,Hare,T.,&Rangel,A.(2012).Decision value computation in DLPFC and VMPFC adjusts to the available decision time.European Journal of Neuroscience,35(7),1065-1074.
Soutschek,A.,Ugazio,G.,Crockett,M.J.,Ruff,C.C.,Kalenscher,T.,&Tobler,P.N.(2017).Binding oneself to the mast:Stimulating frontopolar cortex enhances precommitment.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,12(4),635-642.
Steinbeis,N.,Haushofer,J.,Fehr,E.,&Singer,T.(2016).Development of behavioral control and associated vmPFC-DLPFC connectivity explains children's increased resistance to temptation in intertemporal choice.Cerebral Cortex,26(1),32-42.
Tedford,S.E.,Persons,A.L.,&Napier,T.C.(2015).Dopaminergic lesions of the dorsolateral striatum in rats increase delay discounting in an impulsive choice task.PLOS ONE,10(4),e0122063.
Thomas,A.,Christensen,D.,Deblaquiere,J.,Armstrong,A.,Moore,S.,Carson,R.,&Rintoul,A.(2016).Review of electronic gaming machine pre-commitment features:Limit setting.Melbourne:Australian Institute of Family Studies.
Tsujimoto,S.,Genovesio,A.,&Wise,S.P.(2011).Frontal pole cortex:Encoding ends at the end of the endbrain.Trends in Cognitive Sciences,15(4),169-176.
Wang,Q.,Chen,C.,Cai,Y.,Li,S.,Zhao,X.,Zheng,L.,…Xue,G.(2016).Dissociated neural substrates underlying impulsive choice and impulsive action.NeuroImage,134(1),540-549.
Wang,X.T.,&Dvorak,R.D.(2010).Sweet future:Fluctuating blood glucose levels affect future discounting.Psychological Science,21(2),183-188.
窦凯,聂衍刚,王玉洁,黎建斌,沈汪兵.(2014).自我损耗促进冲动决策:来自行为和ERPs的证据.心理学报,46(10),1564-1579.
何贵兵,陈海贤,林静.(2009).跨期选择中的反常现象及其心理机制.应用心理学,15,298-305.
梁竹苑,刘欢.(2011).跨期选择的性质探索.心理科学进展,19(7),959-966.
刘洪志,江程铭,饶俪琳,李纾.(2015).“时间折扣”还是“单维占优”?--跨期决策的心理机制.心理学报,47(4),522-532.
汪强,张恩茂.(2015).降低决策冲动性的方法及其神经机制.心理科学进展,23(1),101-109.
Ainslie,G.(1975).Specious reward:A behavioral theory of impulsiveness and impulse control.Psychological Bulletin,82(4),463-496.
Anjali,R.B.,Rafael,P.,Hare,T.A.,&Ruff,C.C.(2015).Transcranial stimulation over frontopolar cortex elucidates the choice attributes and neural mechanisms used to resolve exploration-exploitation trade-offs.Journal of Neuroscience,35(43),14544-14556.
Ariely,D.,&Wertenbroch,K.(2002).Procrastination,deadlines,and performance:Self-control by precommitment.Psychological Science,13(3),219-224.
Banfield,G.D.(2009).Simulation of self-control through precommitment behaviour in an evolutionary system.(Unpublished Doctorial Dissertation).University of London.
Boorman,E.D.,Behrens,T.E.J,&Rushworth,M.F.(2011).Counterfactual choice and learning in a neural network centered on human lateral frontopolar cortex.PLOSBiology,9(6),e1001093.
Boorman,E.D.,Behrens,T.E.J.,Woolrich,M.W.,&Rushworth,M.F.S.(2009).How green is the grass on the other side?Frontopolar cortex and the evidence in favor of alternative courses of action.Neuron,62(5),733-743.
Boschin,E.A.,&Buckley,M.J.(2015).Differential contributions of dorsolateral and frontopolar cortices to working memory processes in the primate.Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience,9,144.
Brevers,D.,Noel,X.,Clark,L.,Zyuzin,J.,Justin Park,J.,&Bechara,A.(2016).The impact of precommitment on risk-taking while gambling:A preliminary study.Journal of Behavioral Addictions,5(1),51-58.
Christodoulou,C.,Banfield,G.,&Cleanthous,A.(2010).Self-control with spiking and non-spiking neural networks playing games.Journal of Physiology-Paris,104(3-4),108-117.
Collazos,C.A.,Guerrero,L.A.,Pino,J.A.,Renzi,S.,Klobas,J.,Ortega,M.,...Bravo,C.(2007).Suporting online material self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system.Educational Technology and Society,10(3),257-274.
Crockett,M.J.,Braams,B.R.,Clark,L.,Tobler,P.N.,Robbins,T.W.,&Kalenscher,T.(2013).Restricting temptations:Neural mechanisms of precommitment.Neuron,79(2),391-401.
Daw,N.D.,O'Doherty,J.P.,Dayan,P.,Seymour,B.,&Dolan,R.J.(2006).Cortical substrates for exploratory decisions in humans.Nature,441,876-879.
Dom,G.,D’Haene,P.,Hulstijn,W.,&Sabbe,B.(2006).Impulsivity in abstinent early-and late-onset alcoholics:Differences in self-report measures and a discounting task.Addiction,101(1),50-59.
Figner,B.,Knoch,D.,Johnson,E.J.,Krosch,A.R.,Lisanby,S.H.,Fehr,E.,&Weber,E.U.(2010).Lateral prefrontal cortex and self-control in intertemporal choice.Nature Neuroscience,13,538-539.
Franken,I.H.A.,&Muris,P.(2005).Individual differences in decision-making.Personality and Individual Differences,39(5),991-998.
Frederick,S.,Loewenstein,G.,&O'Donoghue,T.(2002).Time discounting and time preference:A critical review.Journal of Economic Literature,40(2),351-401.
Green,A.E.,Spiegel,K.A.,Giangrande,E.J.,Weinberger,A.B.,Gallagher,N.M.,&Turkeltaub,P.E.(2017).Thinking cap plus thinking zap:tDCS of frontopolar cortex improves creative analogical reasoning and facilitates conscious augmentation of state creativity in verb generation.Cerebral Cortex,27(4),2628-2639.
Hao,Q.,Branch,R.M.,&Jensen,L.(2016).The effect of precommitment on student achievement within a technology-rich project-based learning environment.Techtrends,60(5),442-448.
Hare,T.A.,Camerer,C.F.,&Rangel,A.(2009).Self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system.Science,324(5927),646-648.
Hare,T.A.,Hakimi,S.,&Rangel,A.(2014).Activity in dlPFC and its effective connectivity to vmPFC are associated with temporal discounting.Frontiers in Neuroscience,8,50.
Hare,T.A.,O'Doherty,J.,Camerer,C.F.,Schultz,W.,&Rangel,A.(2008).Dissociating the role of the orbitofrontal cortex and the striatum in the computation of goal values and prediction errors.Journal of Neuroscience,28(22),5623-5630.
Hyafil,A.,&Koechlin,E.(2016).A neurocomputational model of human frontopolar cortex function.Retrieved Jan22,2016,from http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/037150
Jimura,K.,Chushak,M.S.,&Braver,T.S.(2013).Impulsivity and self-control during intertemporal decision making linked to the neural dynamics of reward value representation.Journal of Neuroscience,33(1),344-357.
Kable,J.W.,&Glimcher,P.W.(2007).The neural correlates of subjective value during intertemporal choice.Nature Neuroscience,10,1625-1633.
Kalenscher,T.,&Pennartz,C.M.A.(2008).Is a bird in the hand worth two in the future?The neuroeconomics of intertemporal decision-making.Progress in Neurobiology,84(3),284-315.
Kim,D.Y.,&Lee,J.H.(2011).Effects of the BAS and BISon decision-making in a gambling task.Personality and Individual Differences,50(7),1131-1135.
Kurth-Nelson,Z.,&Redish,A.D.(2010).A reinforcement learning model of precommitment in decision making.Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience,4,184.
Kurth-Nelson,Z.,&Redish,A.D.(2012).Don’t let me do that!-Models of precommitment.Frontiers in Neuroscience,6,138.
Ladouceur,R.,Blaszczynski,A.,&Lalande,D.R.(2012).Pre-commitment in gambling:A review of the empirical evidence.International Gambling Studies,12(2),215-230.
Laibson,D.(1997).Golden eggs and hyperbolic discounting.Quarterly Journal of Economics,112(2),443-478.
Layton,R.L.(2014).Public and private goal commitment:Self-control and choice.(Unpublished doctorial dissertation)State University of New York,3629133.
Loewenstein,G.(1996).Out of control:Visceral influences on behavior.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,65(3),272-292.
MacKillop,J.,Weafer,J.,Gray,J.C.,Oshri,A.,Palmer,A.,&Wit,H.D.(2016).The latent structure of impulsivity:Impulsive choice,impulsive action,and impulsive personality traits.Psychopharmacology,233(18),3361-3370.
De Martino,B.,Fleming,S.M.,Garrett,N.,&Dolan,R.J.(2013).Confidence in value-based choice.Nature Neuroscience,16,105-110.
Mazur,J.E.(1984).Tests of an equivalence rule for fixed and variable reinforcer delays.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Animal Behavior Processes,10(4),426-436.
McClure,S.M.,Laibson,D.I.,Loewenstein,G.,&Cohen,J.D.(2004).Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards.Science,306(5695),503-507.
McNamee,D.,Rangel,A.,&O'Doherty,J.P.(2013).Category-dependent and category-independent goal-value codes in human ventromedial prefrontal cortex.Nature Neuroscience,16,479-485.
O'Donnell,S.,Daniel,T.O.,&Epstein,L.H.(2017).Does goal relevant episodic future thinking amplify the effect on delay discounting?Consciousness and Cognition,51,10-16.
Paniukov,D.,&Davis,T.(2017).The integrative role of frontopolar cortex in rule-based category learning.Retrieved Feb 8,2017,from https://www.biorxiv.org/content/early/2017/02/08/107110
Peters,J.,&Büchel,C.(2010).Episodic future thinking reduces reward delay discounting through an enhancement of prefrontal-mediotemporal interactions.Neuron,66(1),138-148.
Rachlin,H.(1995).Self-control:Beyond commitment.Behavioral and Brain Sciences,18(1),109-121.
Rachlin,H.,&Green,L.(1972).Commitment,choice and self-control.Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior,17(1),15-22.
Rushworth,M.F.S.,Noonan,M.A.P.,Boorman,E.D.,Walton,M.E.,&Behrens,T.E.(2011).Frontal cortex and reward-guided learning and decision-making.Neuron,70(6),1054-1069.
Schwartz,J.,Mochon,D.,Wyper,L.,Maroba,J.,Patel,D.,&Ariely,D.(2014).Healthier by precommitment.Psychological Science,25(2),538-546.
Smith,A.P.,Marshall,A.T.,&Kirkpatrick,K.(2015).Mechanisms of impulsive choice:II.Time-based interventions to improve self-control.Behavioural Processes,112,29-42.
Smith,D.V.,Clithero,J.A.,Boltuck,S.E.,&Huettel,S.A.(2014).Functional connectivity with ventromedial prefrontal cortex reflects subjective value for social rewards.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,9(12),2017-2025.
Sokol-Hessner,P.,Hutcherson,C.,Hare,T.,&Rangel,A.(2012).Decision value computation in DLPFC and VMPFC adjusts to the available decision time.European Journal of Neuroscience,35(7),1065-1074.
Soutschek,A.,Ugazio,G.,Crockett,M.J.,Ruff,C.C.,Kalenscher,T.,&Tobler,P.N.(2017).Binding oneself to the mast:Stimulating frontopolar cortex enhances precommitment.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,12(4),635-642.
Steinbeis,N.,Haushofer,J.,Fehr,E.,&Singer,T.(2016).Development of behavioral control and associated vmPFC-DLPFC connectivity explains children's increased resistance to temptation in intertemporal choice.Cerebral Cortex,26(1),32-42.
Tedford,S.E.,Persons,A.L.,&Napier,T.C.(2015).Dopaminergic lesions of the dorsolateral striatum in rats increase delay discounting in an impulsive choice task.PLOS ONE,10(4),e0122063.
Thomas,A.,Christensen,D.,Deblaquiere,J.,Armstrong,A.,Moore,S.,Carson,R.,&Rintoul,A.(2016).Review of electronic gaming machine pre-commitment features:Limit setting.Melbourne:Australian Institute of Family Studies.
Tsujimoto,S.,Genovesio,A.,&Wise,S.P.(2011).Frontal pole cortex:Encoding ends at the end of the endbrain.Trends in Cognitive Sciences,15(4),169-176.
Wang,Q.,Chen,C.,Cai,Y.,Li,S.,Zhao,X.,Zheng,L.,…Xue,G.(2016).Dissociated neural substrates underlying impulsive choice and impulsive action.NeuroImage,134(1),540-549.
Wang,X.T.,&Dvorak,R.D.(2010).Sweet future:Fluctuating blood glucose levels affect future discounting.Psychological Science,21(2),183-188.