竞争模型框架下的语言迁移——理论与实证
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摘要
竞争模型作为重要的语言学习理论,其发展包括经典竞争模型和统一竞争模型两个阶段。它们都对语言迁移提出了一系列理论观点,并引发了不少实证研究,但国内对此知之甚少。本文全面介绍了两个阶段的竞争模型对语言迁移的理论观点,系统梳理了相关的实证研究,并指出了今后研究的发展方向。与经典模型相比,统一竞争模型的理论观点更加全面系统,相关实证研究的范围更广,从单一的句子理解扩展到语言的各层面以及文化因素等;在研究方法上,涉及的受试趋于多样化,不仅丰富了离线手段,而且推广运用了ERP等在线手段。但目前研究在内容和方法上仍存在一些不足,需要努力克服。
As an important theory for language learning,competition model has developed from the classic version to the unified competition model.Both of them proposed some theoretical points on language transfer,stimulating some empirical studies.These achievements,however,remain largely unknown to SLA field in China.In order to fill in this gap,this paper reviews the theoretical points and empirical studies in the two phases of comp etitionmodel with a special focus on language transfer,and finally points out new directions for future research.Compared with the classic version,the united competition model provided more systematic accounts of language transfer in a broader scope.Similarly,the empirical studies within the newer model surpassed those in the classic version.To be specific,they investigated more arenas and cultural factors in diverse L2 learners through a combination of off-line and online methods.But critically speaking,these studies are not flawless in terms of content and methodology,thus calling for further improvements in future research.
As an important theory for language learning,competition model has developed from the classic version to the unified competition model.Both of them proposed some theoretical points on language transfer,stimulating some empirical studies.These achievements,however,remain largely unknown to SLA field in China.In order to fill in this gap,this paper reviews the theoretical points and empirical studies in the two phases of comp etitionmodel with a special focus on language transfer,and finally points out new directions for future research.Compared with the classic version,the united competition model provided more systematic accounts of language transfer in a broader scope.Similarly,the empirical studies within the newer model surpassed those in the classic version.To be specific,they investigated more arenas and cultural factors in diverse L2 learners through a combination of off-line and online methods.But critically speaking,these studies are not flawless in terms of content and methodology,thus calling for further improvements in future research.
引文
Bates, E. & B. MacWhinney. 1981. Second-language acquisition from a functionalist perspective: Pragmatic, semantic, and perceptual strategies [A]. In H. Winitz (ed.). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences Conference on Native and Foreign Language Acquisition [C]. New York: New York Academy of Sciences. 190-214.
Bates, E. & B. MacWhinney. 1987. Competition, variation, and language learning [A]. In B. MacWhinney (ed.). Mechanisms of Language Acquisition [C]. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 157-194.
Bates, E. & B. MacWhinney. 1989. Functionalism and the Competition Model [A]. In B. MacWhinney & E. Bates (eds.) The Crosslinguistic Study of Sentence Processing [C]. New York: Cambridge University Press. 3-73.
Gass, S. M. 1987. The resolution of conflicts among competing systems: A bidirectional perspective [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 8 (4): 329-350.
Gibson, T. A. & C. Summers. 2018. Polysyllabic shortening in speakers exposed to two languages [J]. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 21 (3): 471-478.
Gildersleeve-Neumann, C. E., E. D. Peňa, B. L. Davis & E. S. Kester. 2009. Effects on L1 during early acquisition of L2: Speech changes in Spanish at first English contact [J]. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 12(2): 259-272.
Harrington, M. 1987. Processing transfer: Language-specific processing strategies as a source of interlanguage variation [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 8 (4): 351-377.
Heilenman, L. K. & J. L. McDonald. 1993. Processing strategies in L2 learners of French: The role of transfer [J]. Language Learning 43 (4): 507-557.
Kilborn, K. 1989. Sentence processing in a second language: The timing of transfer [J]. Language and Speech 32 (1): 1-23.
Kilborn, K. & A. Cooreman. 1987. Sentence interpretation strategies in adult Dutch–English bilinguals [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 8 (4): 415-431.
Koda, K. 1993. Transferred L1 strategies and L2 syntactic structure in L2 sentence comprehension [J]. The Modern Language Journal 77 (4): 490-500.
Liu, H., E. Bates & P. Li. 1992. Sentence interpretation in bilingual speakers of English and Chinese [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 13 (4): 451-484.
MacWhinney, B. 1987. Applying the competition model to bilingualism [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 8 (4): 315-327.
MacWhinney, B. 1992. Transfer and competition in second language learning [A]. In R. Harris (ed.). Cognitive Processing in Bilinguals [C]. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 371-390.
MacWhinney, B. 1997. Second language acquisition and the Competition Model [A]. In J. Kroll & A. De Groot (eds.). Tutorials in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Perspectives [C]. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 113-142.
MacWhinney, B. 2002. Extending the Competition Model [A]. In R. Heredia & J. Altarriba (eds.). Bilingual Sentence Processing [C]. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 31-58.
MacWhinney, B. 2005. A unified model of language acquisition [A]. In J. F. Kroll & A. M. B. de Groot (eds.). Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches [C]. New York: Oxford University Press. 49-67.
MacWhinney, B. 2012. The logic of the unified model [A]. In S. Gass & A. Mackey (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition [C]. New York: Routledge. 211-227.
MacWhinney, B. 2016. Entrenchment in second language learning [A]. In H.-J. Schmid (ed.). Entrenchment and the Psychology of Language Learning [C]. New York: American Psychological Association. 343-366.
McDonald, J. L. 1987. Sentence interpretation in bilingual speakers of English and Dutch [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 8 (4): 379-413.
McDonald, J. L. & L. K. Heilenman. 1991. Determinants of cue strength in adult first and second language speakers of French [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 12 (3): 313-348.
McDonald, J. L. & L. K. Heilenman. 1992. Changes in sentence processing as second language proficiency increases [J]. Advances in Psychology 83: 325-336.
Morett, L. & B. MacWhinney. 2013. Syntactic transfer in English-speaking Spanish learners [J]. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 16 (1): 132-151.
Noor, H. H. 2007. The influence of L2 on the syntactic processing of L1 by Arab EFL learners [J]. Journal of Literature, Language and Linguistics 1 (1): 1-18.
Pham, G. & K. D. Ebert. 2016. A longitudinal analysis of sentence interpretation in bilingual children [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 37(2): 461-485.
Sasaki, Y. 1991. English and Japanese interlanguage comprehension strategies: An analysis based on the competition model [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 12 (1): 47-73.
Sasaki, Y. 1994. Paths of processing strategy transfers in learning Japanese and English as foreign languages: A competition model approach [J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16 (1): 43-72.
Seibert Hanson, A. E. & M. T. Carlson. 2014. The roles of first language and proficiency in L2 processing of Spanish clitics: Global effects [J]. Language Learning 64 (2): 310-342.
Su, I. R. 2001. Transfer of sentence processing strategies: A comparison of L2 learners of Chinese and English [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 22 (1): 83-112.
Tokowicz, N. & B. MacWhinney. 2005. Implicit and explicit measures of sensitivity to violations in second language grammar: An event-related potential investigation [J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 27 (2): 173-204.
Togato, G., N. Paredes, P. Macizo & T. Bajo. 2015. Syntactic processing in professional interpreters: Understanding ambiguous sentences in reading and translation [J]. Applied Linguistics 38(4): 581-598.
Tolentino, L. C. & N. Tokowicz. 2011. Across languages, space, and time: A review of the role of cross-language similarity in L2 (morpho) syntactic processing as revealed by fMRI and ERP methods [J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 33 (1): 91-125.
Yoshimura, Y. & B. MacWhinney. 2010. Honorifics: A socio-cultural verb agreement cue in Japanese sentence processing [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 31 (3): 551-569.
Zhao, H. & B. MacWhinney. 2010. Competing cues: A corpus-based study of English tense-aspect acquisition [J]. BUCLD Proceedings 34: 503-514.
蔡振光、董燕萍. 2007a. 竞争模型中的语义线索:纯生命性[J]. 外国语(2):45-52.
蔡振光、董燕萍. 2007b. 汉、英双语者句子理解策略的迁移[J]. 现代外语(3):251-261.
董燕萍、蔡振光. 2007. 竞争模型中的语义线索:论元特征满足度[J]. 外语教学与研究(3):169-176.
董燕萍、刘玉花. 2006. 英、汉语句子理解过程中的线索竞争[J]. 外语教学与研究(5):257-264.
蒋祖康. 1999. 第二语言习得研究[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.
张辉. 2014. 二语学习者句法加工的 ERP 研究 [J].解放军外国语学院学报(1): 88-99.
张辉、余芳、卞京. 2017. 跨语言句法相似性对二语句法加工的影响——来自中国英语学习者的ERP证据 [J]. 外语教学与研究(6):803-817.
张晓鹏. 2012. 中国学生英语句子加工中的句法-语义相互作用—来自语缺和生命性线索加工的证据[J]. 现代外语(2):61-69.
① 本文中N和V分别指名词和动词,NVN、NNV、VNN表示各种句子语序,如NVN表示该句子的第一个成分是名词,第二个是动词,第三个是名词。
Bates, E. & B. MacWhinney. 1987. Competition, variation, and language learning [A]. In B. MacWhinney (ed.). Mechanisms of Language Acquisition [C]. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 157-194.
Bates, E. & B. MacWhinney. 1989. Functionalism and the Competition Model [A]. In B. MacWhinney & E. Bates (eds.) The Crosslinguistic Study of Sentence Processing [C]. New York: Cambridge University Press. 3-73.
Gass, S. M. 1987. The resolution of conflicts among competing systems: A bidirectional perspective [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 8 (4): 329-350.
Gibson, T. A. & C. Summers. 2018. Polysyllabic shortening in speakers exposed to two languages [J]. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 21 (3): 471-478.
Gildersleeve-Neumann, C. E., E. D. Peňa, B. L. Davis & E. S. Kester. 2009. Effects on L1 during early acquisition of L2: Speech changes in Spanish at first English contact [J]. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 12(2): 259-272.
Harrington, M. 1987. Processing transfer: Language-specific processing strategies as a source of interlanguage variation [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 8 (4): 351-377.
Heilenman, L. K. & J. L. McDonald. 1993. Processing strategies in L2 learners of French: The role of transfer [J]. Language Learning 43 (4): 507-557.
Kilborn, K. 1989. Sentence processing in a second language: The timing of transfer [J]. Language and Speech 32 (1): 1-23.
Kilborn, K. & A. Cooreman. 1987. Sentence interpretation strategies in adult Dutch–English bilinguals [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 8 (4): 415-431.
Koda, K. 1993. Transferred L1 strategies and L2 syntactic structure in L2 sentence comprehension [J]. The Modern Language Journal 77 (4): 490-500.
Liu, H., E. Bates & P. Li. 1992. Sentence interpretation in bilingual speakers of English and Chinese [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 13 (4): 451-484.
MacWhinney, B. 1987. Applying the competition model to bilingualism [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 8 (4): 315-327.
MacWhinney, B. 1992. Transfer and competition in second language learning [A]. In R. Harris (ed.). Cognitive Processing in Bilinguals [C]. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 371-390.
MacWhinney, B. 1997. Second language acquisition and the Competition Model [A]. In J. Kroll & A. De Groot (eds.). Tutorials in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Perspectives [C]. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 113-142.
MacWhinney, B. 2002. Extending the Competition Model [A]. In R. Heredia & J. Altarriba (eds.). Bilingual Sentence Processing [C]. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 31-58.
MacWhinney, B. 2005. A unified model of language acquisition [A]. In J. F. Kroll & A. M. B. de Groot (eds.). Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches [C]. New York: Oxford University Press. 49-67.
MacWhinney, B. 2012. The logic of the unified model [A]. In S. Gass & A. Mackey (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition [C]. New York: Routledge. 211-227.
MacWhinney, B. 2016. Entrenchment in second language learning [A]. In H.-J. Schmid (ed.). Entrenchment and the Psychology of Language Learning [C]. New York: American Psychological Association. 343-366.
McDonald, J. L. 1987. Sentence interpretation in bilingual speakers of English and Dutch [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 8 (4): 379-413.
McDonald, J. L. & L. K. Heilenman. 1991. Determinants of cue strength in adult first and second language speakers of French [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 12 (3): 313-348.
McDonald, J. L. & L. K. Heilenman. 1992. Changes in sentence processing as second language proficiency increases [J]. Advances in Psychology 83: 325-336.
Morett, L. & B. MacWhinney. 2013. Syntactic transfer in English-speaking Spanish learners [J]. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 16 (1): 132-151.
Noor, H. H. 2007. The influence of L2 on the syntactic processing of L1 by Arab EFL learners [J]. Journal of Literature, Language and Linguistics 1 (1): 1-18.
Pham, G. & K. D. Ebert. 2016. A longitudinal analysis of sentence interpretation in bilingual children [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 37(2): 461-485.
Sasaki, Y. 1991. English and Japanese interlanguage comprehension strategies: An analysis based on the competition model [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 12 (1): 47-73.
Sasaki, Y. 1994. Paths of processing strategy transfers in learning Japanese and English as foreign languages: A competition model approach [J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16 (1): 43-72.
Seibert Hanson, A. E. & M. T. Carlson. 2014. The roles of first language and proficiency in L2 processing of Spanish clitics: Global effects [J]. Language Learning 64 (2): 310-342.
Su, I. R. 2001. Transfer of sentence processing strategies: A comparison of L2 learners of Chinese and English [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 22 (1): 83-112.
Tokowicz, N. & B. MacWhinney. 2005. Implicit and explicit measures of sensitivity to violations in second language grammar: An event-related potential investigation [J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 27 (2): 173-204.
Togato, G., N. Paredes, P. Macizo & T. Bajo. 2015. Syntactic processing in professional interpreters: Understanding ambiguous sentences in reading and translation [J]. Applied Linguistics 38(4): 581-598.
Tolentino, L. C. & N. Tokowicz. 2011. Across languages, space, and time: A review of the role of cross-language similarity in L2 (morpho) syntactic processing as revealed by fMRI and ERP methods [J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 33 (1): 91-125.
Yoshimura, Y. & B. MacWhinney. 2010. Honorifics: A socio-cultural verb agreement cue in Japanese sentence processing [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 31 (3): 551-569.
Zhao, H. & B. MacWhinney. 2010. Competing cues: A corpus-based study of English tense-aspect acquisition [J]. BUCLD Proceedings 34: 503-514.
蔡振光、董燕萍. 2007a. 竞争模型中的语义线索:纯生命性[J]. 外国语(2):45-52.
蔡振光、董燕萍. 2007b. 汉、英双语者句子理解策略的迁移[J]. 现代外语(3):251-261.
董燕萍、蔡振光. 2007. 竞争模型中的语义线索:论元特征满足度[J]. 外语教学与研究(3):169-176.
董燕萍、刘玉花. 2006. 英、汉语句子理解过程中的线索竞争[J]. 外语教学与研究(5):257-264.
蒋祖康. 1999. 第二语言习得研究[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.
张辉. 2014. 二语学习者句法加工的 ERP 研究 [J].解放军外国语学院学报(1): 88-99.
张辉、余芳、卞京. 2017. 跨语言句法相似性对二语句法加工的影响——来自中国英语学习者的ERP证据 [J]. 外语教学与研究(6):803-817.
张晓鹏. 2012. 中国学生英语句子加工中的句法-语义相互作用—来自语缺和生命性线索加工的证据[J]. 现代外语(2):61-69.
① 本文中N和V分别指名词和动词,NVN、NNV、VNN表示各种句子语序,如NVN表示该句子的第一个成分是名词,第二个是动词,第三个是名词。