宗教启动会使人更加道德吗?
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摘要
通过启动被试的宗教信仰状态,进而探讨宗教对个体道德的影响作用,这是近年来宗教心理学研究的热点问题,但是围绕此问题的研究结论并不统一。有研究发现,宗教启动可以增强个体的道德。但也有研究表明宗教启动会使个体更不道德。宗教启动对道德的影响是通过宗教信念的中介作用而实现的,被试的信仰类型、性别、实验启动的方式及内容、以及被试的人格倾向则会因为影响中介信念的激活而调节宗教启动与道德的关系。未来研究需要进一步创新启动实验研究方法,探索影响宗教与道德的关系的调节变量,结合跨文化、跨学科的研究视角,更深入地挖掘这一问题。
In recent years, multiple religious priming paradigms have been used to explore the relationship between religions and morality. It has been found that religious initiation, on the one hand, could promote people's prosocial behaviors and urge people to obey moral rules; on the other hand, it could also activate out-group prejudice and stimulate the hostility to groups with conflicting values. Existing research suggests that specific religious beliefs mediate the influence of religious priming on morality. Variables such as intrinsic religion, gender, the priming method and connotation of the stimuli, and some personality traits would serve as moderators influence the relationship between religion and morality because they may have influence on specific religious beliefs. Future research could further focus on methodological innovation as well as the exploration of other mediators and integrate more cross-religious and cross-cultural perspectives with interdisciplinary collaboration.
In recent years, multiple religious priming paradigms have been used to explore the relationship between religions and morality. It has been found that religious initiation, on the one hand, could promote people's prosocial behaviors and urge people to obey moral rules; on the other hand, it could also activate out-group prejudice and stimulate the hostility to groups with conflicting values. Existing research suggests that specific religious beliefs mediate the influence of religious priming on morality. Variables such as intrinsic religion, gender, the priming method and connotation of the stimuli, and some personality traits would serve as moderators influence the relationship between religion and morality because they may have influence on specific religious beliefs. Future research could further focus on methodological innovation as well as the exploration of other mediators and integrate more cross-religious and cross-cultural perspectives with interdisciplinary collaboration.
引文
董梦晨,吴嵩,朱一杰,郭亚飞,金盛华.(2015).宗教信仰对亲社会行为的影响.心理科学进展,23(6),1095-1108.
卢川,郭斯萍.(2014).国外精神性研究述评.心理科学,37(2),506-511.
喻丰,彭凯平,窦东徽,董蕊,韩婷婷.(2014).美德是幸福的前提吗?心理科学,37(6),1518-1523.
Ahmed,A.M.,&Salas,O.(2011).Implicit influences of Christian religious representations on dictator and prisoner's dilemma game decisions.The Journal of Socio-Economics,40(3),242-246.
Aveyard,M.E.(2014).A call to honesty:Extending religious priming of moral behavior to Middle Eastern Muslims.Plos One,9(7),e99447.
Batara,J.B.L.(2016).Religious song as a facilitator of prosocial behavior.International Journal of Research Studies in Psychology,5(1),3-12.
Batara,J.B.,Franco,P.S.,Quiachon,M.A.,&Sembrero,D.R.(2016).Effects of religious priming concepts on prosocial behavior towards ingroup and outgroup.Europe’s Journal of Psychology,12(4),635-644.
Bobkowski,P.S.,&Kalyanaraman,S.(2010).Effects of online Christian self-disclosure on impression formation.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion,49(3),456-476.
Cappellen,P.Van,Corneille,O.,Cols S.,&Saroglou V.(2011)Beyond mere compliance to authoritative figures:Religious priming increases conformity to informational influence among submissive people,The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,21(2),97-105.
Carpenter,T.P.,&Marshall,M.A.(2009).An examination of religious priming and intrinsic religious motivation in the moral hypocrisy paradigm.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion,48(2),386-393.
Chan,K.Q.,Tong,E.M.W.,&Tan,Y.L.(2014).Taking a leap of faith:Reminders of god lead to greater risk taking.Social Psychological and Personality Science,5(8),901-909.
Clobert,M.,Saroglou,V.,&Hwang,K.K.(2015).Buddhist concepts as implicitly reducing prejudice and increasing prosociality.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,41(4),513-525.
Clobert,M.,Saroglou,V.,&Hwang,K.K.(2017).East Asian religious tolerance versus Western monotheist prejudice:The role of(in)tolerance of contradiction.Group Processes&Intergroup Relations,20(2),216-232.
Debono,A.,Shariff,A.F.,Poole,S.,&Muraven,M.(2017).Forgive us our trespasses:Priming a forgiving(but not a punishing)god increases unethical behavior.Psychology of Religion&Spirituality,9(suppl 1),S1-S10.
Eugenia.C.W.&Keisham M.C.(2017).In god's hands:How reminders of god dampen the effectiveness of fear appeals.Journal of Marketing Research,55(1),119-131.
Farid P.,Margarida P.,&Joana A.(2017).Effect of religious day on prosocial behavior:A field study.International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,27(2),116-123.
Galen,L.W.(2012).Does religious belief promote prosociality?A critical examination.Psychological Bulletin,138(5),876-906.
Ginges,J.,Hansen,I.,&Norenzayan,A.(2009).Religion and support for suicide attacks.Psychological Science,20(2),224-230.
Gomes,C.M.,&Mccullough,M.E.(2015).The effects of implicit religious primes on dictator game allocations:Apreregistered replication experiment.Journal of Experimental Psychology General,144(6),e94-e104.
Good,M.,Inzlicht,M.,&Larson,M.J.(2015).God will forgive:Reflecting on god’s love decreases neurophysiological responses to errors.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,10(3),357-363.
Goodwin,G.P.,&Darley,J.M.(2008).The psychology of meta-ethics:Exploring objectivism.Cognition,106(3),1339-1366.
Hall,D.L.,Matz,D.C.,&Wood,W.(2010).Why don't we practice what we preach?A meta-analytic review of religious racism.Personality and Social Psychology Review,14(1),126-139.
Holbrook,C.,Fessler,D.M.T.,&Pollack,J.(2016).With god on our side:Religious primes reduce the envisioned physical formidability of a menacing adversary.Cognition,146,387-392.
Jackson,J.C.,&Gray,K.(2018).When a good god makes bad people:Testing a theory of religion and immorality.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.Published online at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324783516_When_a_Good_God_Makes_Bad_People_Testing_a_Theo ry_of_Religion_and_Immorality
Jackson,J.C.,Jong,J.,Bluemke,M.,Poulter,P.,Morgenroth,L.,&Halberstadt,J.(2018).Testing the causal relationship between religious belief and death anxiety.Religion,Brain&Behavior,8(1),57-68.
Johnson,M.K.,Rowatt,W.C.,&Labouff,J.(2010).Priming Christian religious concepts increases racial prejudice.Social Psychological and Personality Science,1(2),119-126.
Johnson,M.K.,Rowatt,W.C.,&Labouff,J.P.(2012).Religiosity and prejudice revisited:In-group favoritism,out-group derogation,or both?.Psychology of Religion&Spirituality,4(2),154-168.
Kupor,D.M.,Laurin,K.,&Levav,J.(2015).Anticipating divine protection?Reminders of god can increase nonmoral risk taking.Psychological Science,26(4),374-384.
Lin,P.K.F.,Tong,E.M.W.,Lee,L.N.,Low,A.H.M.,&Gomes,D.(2016).The prosocial impact of god concept priming on god believers.Psychology of Consciousness:Theory Research&Practice,3(1),93-103.
McCullough,M.E.,Carter,E.C.,DeWall,C.N.,&Corrales,C.M.(2012).Religious cognition down-regulates sexually selected,characteristically male behaviors in men,but not in women.Evolution and Human Behavior,33,562-568
Mckay,R.,Efferson,C.,Whitehouse,H.,&Fehr,E.(2011).Wrath of god:Religious primes and punishment.Proceedings Biological Sciences,278(1713),1858-1863.
Mckay,R.,&Whitehouse,H.(2015).Religion and morality.International Journal of Ethics,141(2),447-473.
Neuberg,S.L.,Warner,C.M.,Mistler,S.A.,Berlin,A.,Hill,E.D.,Johnson,J.D.,...Schober,J.(2014).Religion and intergroup conflict:Findings from the global group relations project.Psychological Science,25(1),198-206.
Pachterbeke,M.V.,Freyer,C.,&Saroglou,V.(2011).When authoritarianism meets religion:Sacrificing others in the name of abstract deontology.European Journal of Social Psychology,41(7),898-903.
Piazza,J.,&Landy,J.F.(2013).“Lean not on your own understanding”:Belief that morality is founded on divine authority and non-utilitarian moral judgments.Judgment&Decision Making,8(6),639-661.
Preston,J.L.,&Ritter,R.S.(2013).Different effects of religion and God on prosociality with the ingroup and outgroup.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,39(11),1471-1483.
Purzycki,B.G.,Apicella,C.,Atkinson,Q.D.,Cohen,E.,Mcnamara,R.A.,Willard,A.K.,…Henrich,J.(2016).Moralistic gods,supernatural punishment and the expansion of human sociality.Nature,530(7590),327-330.
Purzycki,B.G.,Henrich,J.,Apicella,C.,Atkinson,Q.D.,Baimel,A.,Cohen,E.,...Norenzayan,A.(2017).The evolution of religion and morality:A synthesis of ethnographic and experimental evidence from eight societies.Religion,Brain&Behavior,8(2),101-132.
Rand,D.G.,Dreber,A.,Haque,O.S.,Kane,R.J.,Nowak,M.A.,&Coakley,S.(2014).Religious motivations for cooperation:An experimental investigation using explicit primes.Religion Brain&Behavior,4(1),31-48.
Randolph-Seng,B.,&Nielsen,M.E.(2007).Honesty:One effect of primed religious representations.The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,17(4),303-315.
Randolph-Seng,B.,&Nielsen,M.E.(2008).Is god really watching you?A response to Shariff and Norenzayan(2007).International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,18(2),119-122.
Ritter,R.S.,&Preston,J.L.(2011).Gross gods and icky atheism:Disgust responses to rejected religious beliefs.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,47(6),1225-1230.
Ritter,R.S.,&Preston,J.L.(2013).Representations of religious words:Insights for religious priming research.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion,52(3),494-507.
Rodriguez,L.M.,Neighbors,C.,&Foster,D.W.(2014).Priming effects of self-reported drinking and religiosity.Psychology of Addictive Behaviors,28(1),1-9.
Sagioglou,C.,&Forstmann,M.(2013).Activating Christian religious concepts increases intolerance of ambiguity and judgment certainty.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,49(5),933-939.
Saroglou,V.(2011).Believing,bonding,behaving,and belonging:The big four religious dimensions and cultural variation.Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,42(8),1320-1340.
Saroglou,V.,Corneille,O.,&Van Cappellen,P.(2009).“Speak,Lord,your servant is listening”:Religious priming activates submissive thoughts and behaviors.International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,19(3),143-154.
Schumann,K.,Mcgregor,I.,Nash,K.A.,&Ross,M.(2014).Religious magnanimity:Reminding people of their religious belief system reduces hostility after threat.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,107(3),432-453.
Shariff,A.F.,&Norenzayan,A.(2007).God is watching you:Priming god concepts increases prosocial behavior in an anonymous economic game.Psychological Science,18(9),803-809.
Shariff,A.F.,&Norenzayan,A.(2011).Mean gods make good people:Different views of god predict cheating behavior.International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,21(2),85-96.
Shariff,A.F.,Piazza,J.,&Kramer,S.R.(2014).Morality and the religious mind:Why theists and nontheists differ.Trends in Cognitive Sciences,18(9),439-441.
Shariff,A.F.,Willard,A.K.,Andersen,T.,&Norenzayan,A.(2016).Religious priming:A meta-analysis with a focus on prosociality.Personality and Social Psychology Review,20(1),27-48.
Tong,E.M.W.,&Teo,A.Q.H.(2018).The influence of religious concepts on the effects of blame appraisals on negative emotions.Cognition,177,150-164.
Tongeren,D.R.V.,Newbound,H.,&Johnson,E.(2016).The interactive effects of religiosity and priming religion following recall of a values violation.Sexual Addiction&Compulsivity,23(2-3),211-224.
Van,L.N.(2017).Two paradigms for religious representation:The physicist and the playground(a reply to levy).Cognition,164,206-211.
Willard,A.K.,Shariff,A.F.,&Norenzayan,A.(2016).Religious priming as a research tool for studying religion:Evidentiary value,current issues,and future directions.Current Opinion in Psychology,12(12),71-75.
Xygalatas,D.(2012).Effects of religious setting on cooperative behavior:A case study from Mauritius.Religion Brain and Behavior,3(2),91-102.
Yilmaz,O.,&Bahcekapili,H.G.(2015).Without God,everything is permitted?The reciprocal influence of religious and meta-ethical beliefs.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,58,95-100.
1本文中所提到的“上帝”(GOD)专指基督教中崇拜的超验实体,而提到“神”(deity)则泛指所有宗教中崇拜的超验实体。
卢川,郭斯萍.(2014).国外精神性研究述评.心理科学,37(2),506-511.
喻丰,彭凯平,窦东徽,董蕊,韩婷婷.(2014).美德是幸福的前提吗?心理科学,37(6),1518-1523.
Ahmed,A.M.,&Salas,O.(2011).Implicit influences of Christian religious representations on dictator and prisoner's dilemma game decisions.The Journal of Socio-Economics,40(3),242-246.
Aveyard,M.E.(2014).A call to honesty:Extending religious priming of moral behavior to Middle Eastern Muslims.Plos One,9(7),e99447.
Batara,J.B.L.(2016).Religious song as a facilitator of prosocial behavior.International Journal of Research Studies in Psychology,5(1),3-12.
Batara,J.B.,Franco,P.S.,Quiachon,M.A.,&Sembrero,D.R.(2016).Effects of religious priming concepts on prosocial behavior towards ingroup and outgroup.Europe’s Journal of Psychology,12(4),635-644.
Bobkowski,P.S.,&Kalyanaraman,S.(2010).Effects of online Christian self-disclosure on impression formation.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion,49(3),456-476.
Cappellen,P.Van,Corneille,O.,Cols S.,&Saroglou V.(2011)Beyond mere compliance to authoritative figures:Religious priming increases conformity to informational influence among submissive people,The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,21(2),97-105.
Carpenter,T.P.,&Marshall,M.A.(2009).An examination of religious priming and intrinsic religious motivation in the moral hypocrisy paradigm.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion,48(2),386-393.
Chan,K.Q.,Tong,E.M.W.,&Tan,Y.L.(2014).Taking a leap of faith:Reminders of god lead to greater risk taking.Social Psychological and Personality Science,5(8),901-909.
Clobert,M.,Saroglou,V.,&Hwang,K.K.(2015).Buddhist concepts as implicitly reducing prejudice and increasing prosociality.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,41(4),513-525.
Clobert,M.,Saroglou,V.,&Hwang,K.K.(2017).East Asian religious tolerance versus Western monotheist prejudice:The role of(in)tolerance of contradiction.Group Processes&Intergroup Relations,20(2),216-232.
Debono,A.,Shariff,A.F.,Poole,S.,&Muraven,M.(2017).Forgive us our trespasses:Priming a forgiving(but not a punishing)god increases unethical behavior.Psychology of Religion&Spirituality,9(suppl 1),S1-S10.
Eugenia.C.W.&Keisham M.C.(2017).In god's hands:How reminders of god dampen the effectiveness of fear appeals.Journal of Marketing Research,55(1),119-131.
Farid P.,Margarida P.,&Joana A.(2017).Effect of religious day on prosocial behavior:A field study.International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,27(2),116-123.
Galen,L.W.(2012).Does religious belief promote prosociality?A critical examination.Psychological Bulletin,138(5),876-906.
Ginges,J.,Hansen,I.,&Norenzayan,A.(2009).Religion and support for suicide attacks.Psychological Science,20(2),224-230.
Gomes,C.M.,&Mccullough,M.E.(2015).The effects of implicit religious primes on dictator game allocations:Apreregistered replication experiment.Journal of Experimental Psychology General,144(6),e94-e104.
Good,M.,Inzlicht,M.,&Larson,M.J.(2015).God will forgive:Reflecting on god’s love decreases neurophysiological responses to errors.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,10(3),357-363.
Goodwin,G.P.,&Darley,J.M.(2008).The psychology of meta-ethics:Exploring objectivism.Cognition,106(3),1339-1366.
Hall,D.L.,Matz,D.C.,&Wood,W.(2010).Why don't we practice what we preach?A meta-analytic review of religious racism.Personality and Social Psychology Review,14(1),126-139.
Holbrook,C.,Fessler,D.M.T.,&Pollack,J.(2016).With god on our side:Religious primes reduce the envisioned physical formidability of a menacing adversary.Cognition,146,387-392.
Jackson,J.C.,&Gray,K.(2018).When a good god makes bad people:Testing a theory of religion and immorality.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.Published online at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324783516_When_a_Good_God_Makes_Bad_People_Testing_a_Theo ry_of_Religion_and_Immorality
Jackson,J.C.,Jong,J.,Bluemke,M.,Poulter,P.,Morgenroth,L.,&Halberstadt,J.(2018).Testing the causal relationship between religious belief and death anxiety.Religion,Brain&Behavior,8(1),57-68.
Johnson,M.K.,Rowatt,W.C.,&Labouff,J.(2010).Priming Christian religious concepts increases racial prejudice.Social Psychological and Personality Science,1(2),119-126.
Johnson,M.K.,Rowatt,W.C.,&Labouff,J.P.(2012).Religiosity and prejudice revisited:In-group favoritism,out-group derogation,or both?.Psychology of Religion&Spirituality,4(2),154-168.
Kupor,D.M.,Laurin,K.,&Levav,J.(2015).Anticipating divine protection?Reminders of god can increase nonmoral risk taking.Psychological Science,26(4),374-384.
Lin,P.K.F.,Tong,E.M.W.,Lee,L.N.,Low,A.H.M.,&Gomes,D.(2016).The prosocial impact of god concept priming on god believers.Psychology of Consciousness:Theory Research&Practice,3(1),93-103.
McCullough,M.E.,Carter,E.C.,DeWall,C.N.,&Corrales,C.M.(2012).Religious cognition down-regulates sexually selected,characteristically male behaviors in men,but not in women.Evolution and Human Behavior,33,562-568
Mckay,R.,Efferson,C.,Whitehouse,H.,&Fehr,E.(2011).Wrath of god:Religious primes and punishment.Proceedings Biological Sciences,278(1713),1858-1863.
Mckay,R.,&Whitehouse,H.(2015).Religion and morality.International Journal of Ethics,141(2),447-473.
Neuberg,S.L.,Warner,C.M.,Mistler,S.A.,Berlin,A.,Hill,E.D.,Johnson,J.D.,...Schober,J.(2014).Religion and intergroup conflict:Findings from the global group relations project.Psychological Science,25(1),198-206.
Pachterbeke,M.V.,Freyer,C.,&Saroglou,V.(2011).When authoritarianism meets religion:Sacrificing others in the name of abstract deontology.European Journal of Social Psychology,41(7),898-903.
Piazza,J.,&Landy,J.F.(2013).“Lean not on your own understanding”:Belief that morality is founded on divine authority and non-utilitarian moral judgments.Judgment&Decision Making,8(6),639-661.
Preston,J.L.,&Ritter,R.S.(2013).Different effects of religion and God on prosociality with the ingroup and outgroup.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,39(11),1471-1483.
Purzycki,B.G.,Apicella,C.,Atkinson,Q.D.,Cohen,E.,Mcnamara,R.A.,Willard,A.K.,…Henrich,J.(2016).Moralistic gods,supernatural punishment and the expansion of human sociality.Nature,530(7590),327-330.
Purzycki,B.G.,Henrich,J.,Apicella,C.,Atkinson,Q.D.,Baimel,A.,Cohen,E.,...Norenzayan,A.(2017).The evolution of religion and morality:A synthesis of ethnographic and experimental evidence from eight societies.Religion,Brain&Behavior,8(2),101-132.
Rand,D.G.,Dreber,A.,Haque,O.S.,Kane,R.J.,Nowak,M.A.,&Coakley,S.(2014).Religious motivations for cooperation:An experimental investigation using explicit primes.Religion Brain&Behavior,4(1),31-48.
Randolph-Seng,B.,&Nielsen,M.E.(2007).Honesty:One effect of primed religious representations.The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,17(4),303-315.
Randolph-Seng,B.,&Nielsen,M.E.(2008).Is god really watching you?A response to Shariff and Norenzayan(2007).International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,18(2),119-122.
Ritter,R.S.,&Preston,J.L.(2011).Gross gods and icky atheism:Disgust responses to rejected religious beliefs.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,47(6),1225-1230.
Ritter,R.S.,&Preston,J.L.(2013).Representations of religious words:Insights for religious priming research.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion,52(3),494-507.
Rodriguez,L.M.,Neighbors,C.,&Foster,D.W.(2014).Priming effects of self-reported drinking and religiosity.Psychology of Addictive Behaviors,28(1),1-9.
Sagioglou,C.,&Forstmann,M.(2013).Activating Christian religious concepts increases intolerance of ambiguity and judgment certainty.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,49(5),933-939.
Saroglou,V.(2011).Believing,bonding,behaving,and belonging:The big four religious dimensions and cultural variation.Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,42(8),1320-1340.
Saroglou,V.,Corneille,O.,&Van Cappellen,P.(2009).“Speak,Lord,your servant is listening”:Religious priming activates submissive thoughts and behaviors.International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,19(3),143-154.
Schumann,K.,Mcgregor,I.,Nash,K.A.,&Ross,M.(2014).Religious magnanimity:Reminding people of their religious belief system reduces hostility after threat.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,107(3),432-453.
Shariff,A.F.,&Norenzayan,A.(2007).God is watching you:Priming god concepts increases prosocial behavior in an anonymous economic game.Psychological Science,18(9),803-809.
Shariff,A.F.,&Norenzayan,A.(2011).Mean gods make good people:Different views of god predict cheating behavior.International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,21(2),85-96.
Shariff,A.F.,Piazza,J.,&Kramer,S.R.(2014).Morality and the religious mind:Why theists and nontheists differ.Trends in Cognitive Sciences,18(9),439-441.
Shariff,A.F.,Willard,A.K.,Andersen,T.,&Norenzayan,A.(2016).Religious priming:A meta-analysis with a focus on prosociality.Personality and Social Psychology Review,20(1),27-48.
Tong,E.M.W.,&Teo,A.Q.H.(2018).The influence of religious concepts on the effects of blame appraisals on negative emotions.Cognition,177,150-164.
Tongeren,D.R.V.,Newbound,H.,&Johnson,E.(2016).The interactive effects of religiosity and priming religion following recall of a values violation.Sexual Addiction&Compulsivity,23(2-3),211-224.
Van,L.N.(2017).Two paradigms for religious representation:The physicist and the playground(a reply to levy).Cognition,164,206-211.
Willard,A.K.,Shariff,A.F.,&Norenzayan,A.(2016).Religious priming as a research tool for studying religion:Evidentiary value,current issues,and future directions.Current Opinion in Psychology,12(12),71-75.
Xygalatas,D.(2012).Effects of religious setting on cooperative behavior:A case study from Mauritius.Religion Brain and Behavior,3(2),91-102.
Yilmaz,O.,&Bahcekapili,H.G.(2015).Without God,everything is permitted?The reciprocal influence of religious and meta-ethical beliefs.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,58,95-100.
1本文中所提到的“上帝”(GOD)专指基督教中崇拜的超验实体,而提到“神”(deity)则泛指所有宗教中崇拜的超验实体。