论英属新英格兰经济商业化成因
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摘要
英属新英格兰创建后,清教徒移民不仅带来了金融资本和技术,而且带来了新的生活方式和清教精神。他们在改造北美原始生态环境的过程中,因地制宜,积极发展交通运输和内部贸易网络,开拓对外贸易,不断丰富出口产品种类和结构。随着殖民地与大西洋贸易体系的融合程度不断提升,新英格兰经济的商业化,不仅使经济结构发生了重大变革,而且作为大西洋世界的转运贸易中心,带动了北美经济的发展。
When British New England was created, the puritan immigrants brought not only the financial capital and technology, but also a new way of life and the spirit of puritan. In the process of transforming the primitive ecological environment of North America, they actively developed transportation and internal trade network, expanded the foreign trade, constantly enriched species and structure of export products according to local conditions. As colonial economy integrated signifi cantly into the Atlantic trade system more and more, New England economy had completed the commercializing process. Thus, not only its economic structure had a major change, but also it became a transiting trade center in Atlantic World, boosting the economic growth of North America.
When British New England was created, the puritan immigrants brought not only the financial capital and technology, but also a new way of life and the spirit of puritan. In the process of transforming the primitive ecological environment of North America, they actively developed transportation and internal trade network, expanded the foreign trade, constantly enriched species and structure of export products according to local conditions. As colonial economy integrated signifi cantly into the Atlantic trade system more and more, New England economy had completed the commercializing process. Thus, not only its economic structure had a major change, but also it became a transiting trade center in Atlantic World, boosting the economic growth of North America.
引文
(1)本文中的“新英格兰”是指17—18世纪英国清教徒在北美建立的殖民地,包括普利茅斯、马萨诸塞、康涅狄格、罗得岛、新罕布什尔和缅因。
(2)John J.McC usker and Russell R.Menard,The Economy of British America,1607-1789,Chapel Hill:The University of North Carolina Press,1985,pp.91-116;Christine Leigh Heyrman,Commerce and Culture:The Maritime Communities of Colonial Massachusetts 1690-1750,New York:W.W.Norton&Company,1984;Edwin J.Perkins,The Economy of Colonial America(Second Edition),New York:Columbia University Press,1988,pp.19-44.
(3)Stephen Innes,Creating the Commonwealth:The Economic Culture of Puritan New England,New York:W.W.Norton&Company,1995;M argaret Ellen Newell,From Dependency to Independence:Economic Revolution in Colonial New England,Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1998.
(4)Barry Levy,Town Born:The Political Economy of New England from Its Founding to the Revolution,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2009.
(1)参见黄绍湘:《北美印第安人的原始社会,不是美国的古代史》,《社会科学》1980年第4期;何顺果:《关于美国国内市场形成问题》,《历史研究》1986年第6期;韩铁:《英属北美殖民地法律的早期现代化》,《史学月刊》2007年第2期;李剑鸣:《土地问题在英属北美殖民地社会的重要性》,《南开学报》(哲学社会科学版)1999年第6期;李剑鸣:《英国的殖民地政策与北美独立运动的兴起》,《历史研究》2002年第1期。
(2)Asok Sen,“Commercialisation and Economic Analysis”,Economic and Political Weekly,Vol.22,No.30(Jul.25,1987),PE-38;费尔南·布罗代尔:《15至18世纪的物质文明、经济和资本主义》(第二卷),顾良译,北京:三联书店,2002年,第227页。
(3)Margaret Ellen Newell,Economic Ideology,Culture and Development in New England,1620-1880,Ph.D.diss.,University of Virginia,1991,p.28.
(4)乔纳森·休斯、路易斯·P.凯恩:《美国经济史》,邱晓燕等译,北京:北京大学出版社,2011年,第56页。
(5)Christopher Dyer,An Age of Transition?Economy and Society in England in the Later Middle Ages,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2005,pp.2,3,5.
(6)Mark Overton et.al.,Production and Consumption in English Households,1600-1750,London:Routledge,2004,p.3.
(7)Howard S.Russell,A Long,Deep Furrow:Three Century of Farming in New England,Hanover,New Hampshire:University Press of New England,1976,p.27.
(1)Jack P.Greene,Pursuits of Happiness:The Social Development of Early Modern British Colonies and the Formation of American Culture,Chapel Hill:The University of North Carolina Press,1988,pp.30-31.
(2)E.A.Wrigley,“Brake or Accelerator?Urban Growth and Population Growth Before the Industrial Revolution”,Advander Woude,et.al.eds.,Urbanization in History:A Process of Dynamic Interactions,Oxford,New York:Oxford University Press,1995,p.107.
(3)Margaret Ellen Newell,Economic Ideology,Culture and Development in New England,1620-1880,p.30.
(4)Allan Kulikoff,From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers,Chapel Hill:The University of North Carolina Press,2000,p.22.
(1)David Hackett Fischer,Albion’s Seed:Four British Folkways in America,New York:Oxford University Press,1989,pp.27-28,30,33,39.
(2)Stephen Innes,Creating the Commonwealth:The Economic Culture of Puritan New England,pp.62-63.
(3)Virginia Dejohn Anderson,“Migrants and Motives:Religion and the Settlement of New England,1630-1640”,The New England Quarterly,Vol.58,No.3(Sept.,1985),p.341.
(4)Stephen Innes,Creating the Commonwealth:The Economic Culture of Puritan New England,p.63.
(5)参见张孟媛:《佩里·米勒的清教研究》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2011年,第6—7页。
(6)Bruce C.Daniels,“Economic Development in Colonial and Revolutionary Connecticut:An Overview”,William and Mary Quarterly,Third Series,Vol.37,No.3(Jul.,1980),p.430.
(7)W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,1574-1660,London,1860,p.155.
(8)Stephen Innes,Work and Labor in Early America,Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,1988,pp.14,21-22.
(9)Nathaniel B.Shurtleff ed.,Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England,Vol.I,Boston:The Press of William White,1853,p.88.
(1)William Babcock Weeden,Economic and Social History of New England,1620-1789,Vol.1,Boston:Houghton,Miffl in and Company,1890,p.92.
(2)James E.Mc Williams,“New England’s First Depression:Beyond an Export-Led Interpretation”,The Journal of Interdisciplinary History,Vol.33,No.1(Summer,2002),p.9.
(3)Thomas Hutghinson,The History of Massachusetts Vol.1,Boston,1795,p.29.
(4)Bernard Bailyn,The Barbarous Years:The Confl ict of Civilizations,1600-1675,New York:Alfred A.Knope,2012,p.473.
(5)W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,p.184.
(6)John Winthrop,The History of New England,From1630-1649,Boston:Little,Brown and Co.,1825,p.182.
(7)W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,p.284.
(8)Darrett B.Rutman,“Governor Winthrop’s Garden Crop:The Signifi cance of Agriculture in the Early Commerce of Massachusetts Bay”,The William and Mary Quarterly,Vol.20,No.3(Jul.,1963),pp.398-399;Joseph Avitable,The Atlantic World Economy and Colonial Connecticut,Ph.D.diss.,Rochester,New York:University of Rochester,2009,p.63.Thomas Hutchinson,The History of the Colony and Province of Massachusetts-Bay,Vol.1,Cambridge,Massachusetts:Harvard University Press,1936,pp.82-83.
(1)Nathaniel B.Shurtleff ed.,Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England,Vol.I,pp.304,307,326.
(2)Nathaniel B.Shurtleff ed.,Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England,Vol.II,Boston:The Press of William White,1853,p.27.
(3)Margaret Ellen Newell,Economic Ideology,Culture and Development in New England,1620-1880,p.61.
(4)J.Hammond Trumbull ed.,The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut,Prior to the Union with New Haven Colony,May,1665,Hartford:Brown&Parsons,1850,pp.52,65-66.
(5)Nathaniel B.Shurtleff ed.,Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England,Vol.I,p.258.
(6)William Babcock Weeden,Economic and Social History of New England,1620-1789,Vol.1,p.141.
(7)Christopher Paul Magra,The New England Cod Fishing Industry and Maritime Dimensions of the American Revolution,Ph.D.diss.,University of Pittsburgh,2006,p.120.
(8)Nathaniel B.Shurtleff ed.,Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England,Vol.I,p.337.
(9)Nathaniel B.Shurtleff ed.,Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England,Vol.III,Boston:The Press of William White,1854,p.17.
(10)Barry Levy,Town Born:The Political Economy of New England from Its Founding to the Revolution,pp.154,157.
(1)William Babcock Weeden,Economic and Social History of New England,1620-1789,Vol.1,pp.113-114.
(2)J.Hammond Trumbull ed.,The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut,Prior to the Union with New Haven Colony,May,1665,pp.51,91.
(3)Howard S.Russell,A Long,Deep Furrow:Three Century of Farming in New England,p.80.
(4)Bernard Bailyn,The Barbarous Years:The Confl ict of Civilizations,1600-1675,p.489.
(5)Christopher Paul Magra,The New England Cod Fishing Industry and Maritime Dimensions of the American Revolution,p.126.
(6)Joseph F.Cullon,Colonial Shipwrights and Their World:Men,Women,and Markets in Early New England,Ph.D.diss.,University of Wisconsin-Madison,2003,pp.120-121;Darrett B.Rutman,“Governor Winthrop’s Garden Crop:The Signifi cance of Agriculture in the Early Commerce of Massachusetts Bay”,p.401.
(7)Bernard Bailyn,The Barbarous Years:The Confl ict of Civilizations,1600-1675,p.492.
(1)Bernard Bailyn,The New England Merchants in the Seventeenth Century,Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1979,pp.82-83.
(2)W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1675-1676,also Addenda,1574-1674,London:Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce,1893,p.408.
(3)Cecil Headlam ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1699,also Addenda,1621-1698,London:Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce,1908,p.440.
(4)K.G.Davies ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1739,London:Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce,1994,p.272.
(5)Early American Imprints,Series I,No.9812:“Reasons against the Renewal of the Sugar Act”,Boston,1764,p.11.
(6)Jack P.Greene,Pursuits of Happiness:The Social Development of Early Modern British Colonies and the Formation of American Culture,p.66.
(7)Gerald Berkeley Hertz,The Old Colonial System,Manchester:Manchester University Press,1905,p.54;Christopher Paul Magra,The New England Cod Fishing Industry and Maritime Dimensions of the American Revolution,p.16.
(8)Early American Imprints,Series I,No.6346:“The State of the North-American Trade and Settlements,Considered;with a Particular Account of Nova Scotia”,p.13.
(9)Barry Levy,Town Born:The Political Economy of New England from Its Founding to the Revolution,p.184.
(1)Joseph Avitable,“The Atlantic World Economy and Colonial Connecticut”,pp.120-121.
(2)W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1675-1676,p.362.
(3)K.G.Davies ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1737,London:Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce,1963,p.61.
(4)Cecil Headlam ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1724-2725,London:Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce,1936,p.316.
(5)Barry Levy,Town Born:The Political Economy of New England from Its Founding to the Revolution,p.181.
(6)Elaine Forman Crane,A Dependent People:Newport,Rhode Island in the Revolutionary Era,New York:Fordham University Press,1992,pp.24,30.
(1)Joseph F.Cullon,Colonial Shipwrights and Their World:Men,Women,and Markets in Early New England,p.21.
(2)Stephen Innes,Creating the Commonwealth:The Economic Culture of Puritan New England,p.20.
(3)William Babcock Weeden,Economic and Social History of New England,1620-1789,Vol.1,p.16.
(4)John Oldmixon,The British Empire in America,Vol.1,New York:Augustus M.Kelly,Classics,1969,p.183.
(5)W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1675-1676,p.221;W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1677-1680,London:Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce,1896,pp.277,372-373.
(6)A Collection of Original Papers Relative to the History of the Colony of Massachusetts-Bay,Boston:Thomas and John Fleet,1769,p.495.
(2)John J.McC usker and Russell R.Menard,The Economy of British America,1607-1789,Chapel Hill:The University of North Carolina Press,1985,pp.91-116;Christine Leigh Heyrman,Commerce and Culture:The Maritime Communities of Colonial Massachusetts 1690-1750,New York:W.W.Norton&Company,1984;Edwin J.Perkins,The Economy of Colonial America(Second Edition),New York:Columbia University Press,1988,pp.19-44.
(3)Stephen Innes,Creating the Commonwealth:The Economic Culture of Puritan New England,New York:W.W.Norton&Company,1995;M argaret Ellen Newell,From Dependency to Independence:Economic Revolution in Colonial New England,Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1998.
(4)Barry Levy,Town Born:The Political Economy of New England from Its Founding to the Revolution,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2009.
(1)参见黄绍湘:《北美印第安人的原始社会,不是美国的古代史》,《社会科学》1980年第4期;何顺果:《关于美国国内市场形成问题》,《历史研究》1986年第6期;韩铁:《英属北美殖民地法律的早期现代化》,《史学月刊》2007年第2期;李剑鸣:《土地问题在英属北美殖民地社会的重要性》,《南开学报》(哲学社会科学版)1999年第6期;李剑鸣:《英国的殖民地政策与北美独立运动的兴起》,《历史研究》2002年第1期。
(2)Asok Sen,“Commercialisation and Economic Analysis”,Economic and Political Weekly,Vol.22,No.30(Jul.25,1987),PE-38;费尔南·布罗代尔:《15至18世纪的物质文明、经济和资本主义》(第二卷),顾良译,北京:三联书店,2002年,第227页。
(3)Margaret Ellen Newell,Economic Ideology,Culture and Development in New England,1620-1880,Ph.D.diss.,University of Virginia,1991,p.28.
(4)乔纳森·休斯、路易斯·P.凯恩:《美国经济史》,邱晓燕等译,北京:北京大学出版社,2011年,第56页。
(5)Christopher Dyer,An Age of Transition?Economy and Society in England in the Later Middle Ages,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2005,pp.2,3,5.
(6)Mark Overton et.al.,Production and Consumption in English Households,1600-1750,London:Routledge,2004,p.3.
(7)Howard S.Russell,A Long,Deep Furrow:Three Century of Farming in New England,Hanover,New Hampshire:University Press of New England,1976,p.27.
(1)Jack P.Greene,Pursuits of Happiness:The Social Development of Early Modern British Colonies and the Formation of American Culture,Chapel Hill:The University of North Carolina Press,1988,pp.30-31.
(2)E.A.Wrigley,“Brake or Accelerator?Urban Growth and Population Growth Before the Industrial Revolution”,Advander Woude,et.al.eds.,Urbanization in History:A Process of Dynamic Interactions,Oxford,New York:Oxford University Press,1995,p.107.
(3)Margaret Ellen Newell,Economic Ideology,Culture and Development in New England,1620-1880,p.30.
(4)Allan Kulikoff,From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers,Chapel Hill:The University of North Carolina Press,2000,p.22.
(1)David Hackett Fischer,Albion’s Seed:Four British Folkways in America,New York:Oxford University Press,1989,pp.27-28,30,33,39.
(2)Stephen Innes,Creating the Commonwealth:The Economic Culture of Puritan New England,pp.62-63.
(3)Virginia Dejohn Anderson,“Migrants and Motives:Religion and the Settlement of New England,1630-1640”,The New England Quarterly,Vol.58,No.3(Sept.,1985),p.341.
(4)Stephen Innes,Creating the Commonwealth:The Economic Culture of Puritan New England,p.63.
(5)参见张孟媛:《佩里·米勒的清教研究》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2011年,第6—7页。
(6)Bruce C.Daniels,“Economic Development in Colonial and Revolutionary Connecticut:An Overview”,William and Mary Quarterly,Third Series,Vol.37,No.3(Jul.,1980),p.430.
(7)W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,1574-1660,London,1860,p.155.
(8)Stephen Innes,Work and Labor in Early America,Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,1988,pp.14,21-22.
(9)Nathaniel B.Shurtleff ed.,Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England,Vol.I,Boston:The Press of William White,1853,p.88.
(1)William Babcock Weeden,Economic and Social History of New England,1620-1789,Vol.1,Boston:Houghton,Miffl in and Company,1890,p.92.
(2)James E.Mc Williams,“New England’s First Depression:Beyond an Export-Led Interpretation”,The Journal of Interdisciplinary History,Vol.33,No.1(Summer,2002),p.9.
(3)Thomas Hutghinson,The History of Massachusetts Vol.1,Boston,1795,p.29.
(4)Bernard Bailyn,The Barbarous Years:The Confl ict of Civilizations,1600-1675,New York:Alfred A.Knope,2012,p.473.
(5)W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,p.184.
(6)John Winthrop,The History of New England,From1630-1649,Boston:Little,Brown and Co.,1825,p.182.
(7)W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,p.284.
(8)Darrett B.Rutman,“Governor Winthrop’s Garden Crop:The Signifi cance of Agriculture in the Early Commerce of Massachusetts Bay”,The William and Mary Quarterly,Vol.20,No.3(Jul.,1963),pp.398-399;Joseph Avitable,The Atlantic World Economy and Colonial Connecticut,Ph.D.diss.,Rochester,New York:University of Rochester,2009,p.63.Thomas Hutchinson,The History of the Colony and Province of Massachusetts-Bay,Vol.1,Cambridge,Massachusetts:Harvard University Press,1936,pp.82-83.
(1)Nathaniel B.Shurtleff ed.,Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England,Vol.I,pp.304,307,326.
(2)Nathaniel B.Shurtleff ed.,Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England,Vol.II,Boston:The Press of William White,1853,p.27.
(3)Margaret Ellen Newell,Economic Ideology,Culture and Development in New England,1620-1880,p.61.
(4)J.Hammond Trumbull ed.,The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut,Prior to the Union with New Haven Colony,May,1665,Hartford:Brown&Parsons,1850,pp.52,65-66.
(5)Nathaniel B.Shurtleff ed.,Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England,Vol.I,p.258.
(6)William Babcock Weeden,Economic and Social History of New England,1620-1789,Vol.1,p.141.
(7)Christopher Paul Magra,The New England Cod Fishing Industry and Maritime Dimensions of the American Revolution,Ph.D.diss.,University of Pittsburgh,2006,p.120.
(8)Nathaniel B.Shurtleff ed.,Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England,Vol.I,p.337.
(9)Nathaniel B.Shurtleff ed.,Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England,Vol.III,Boston:The Press of William White,1854,p.17.
(10)Barry Levy,Town Born:The Political Economy of New England from Its Founding to the Revolution,pp.154,157.
(1)William Babcock Weeden,Economic and Social History of New England,1620-1789,Vol.1,pp.113-114.
(2)J.Hammond Trumbull ed.,The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut,Prior to the Union with New Haven Colony,May,1665,pp.51,91.
(3)Howard S.Russell,A Long,Deep Furrow:Three Century of Farming in New England,p.80.
(4)Bernard Bailyn,The Barbarous Years:The Confl ict of Civilizations,1600-1675,p.489.
(5)Christopher Paul Magra,The New England Cod Fishing Industry and Maritime Dimensions of the American Revolution,p.126.
(6)Joseph F.Cullon,Colonial Shipwrights and Their World:Men,Women,and Markets in Early New England,Ph.D.diss.,University of Wisconsin-Madison,2003,pp.120-121;Darrett B.Rutman,“Governor Winthrop’s Garden Crop:The Signifi cance of Agriculture in the Early Commerce of Massachusetts Bay”,p.401.
(7)Bernard Bailyn,The Barbarous Years:The Confl ict of Civilizations,1600-1675,p.492.
(1)Bernard Bailyn,The New England Merchants in the Seventeenth Century,Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1979,pp.82-83.
(2)W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1675-1676,also Addenda,1574-1674,London:Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce,1893,p.408.
(3)Cecil Headlam ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1699,also Addenda,1621-1698,London:Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce,1908,p.440.
(4)K.G.Davies ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1739,London:Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce,1994,p.272.
(5)Early American Imprints,Series I,No.9812:“Reasons against the Renewal of the Sugar Act”,Boston,1764,p.11.
(6)Jack P.Greene,Pursuits of Happiness:The Social Development of Early Modern British Colonies and the Formation of American Culture,p.66.
(7)Gerald Berkeley Hertz,The Old Colonial System,Manchester:Manchester University Press,1905,p.54;Christopher Paul Magra,The New England Cod Fishing Industry and Maritime Dimensions of the American Revolution,p.16.
(8)Early American Imprints,Series I,No.6346:“The State of the North-American Trade and Settlements,Considered;with a Particular Account of Nova Scotia”,p.13.
(9)Barry Levy,Town Born:The Political Economy of New England from Its Founding to the Revolution,p.184.
(1)Joseph Avitable,“The Atlantic World Economy and Colonial Connecticut”,pp.120-121.
(2)W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1675-1676,p.362.
(3)K.G.Davies ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1737,London:Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce,1963,p.61.
(4)Cecil Headlam ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1724-2725,London:Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce,1936,p.316.
(5)Barry Levy,Town Born:The Political Economy of New England from Its Founding to the Revolution,p.181.
(6)Elaine Forman Crane,A Dependent People:Newport,Rhode Island in the Revolutionary Era,New York:Fordham University Press,1992,pp.24,30.
(1)Joseph F.Cullon,Colonial Shipwrights and Their World:Men,Women,and Markets in Early New England,p.21.
(2)Stephen Innes,Creating the Commonwealth:The Economic Culture of Puritan New England,p.20.
(3)William Babcock Weeden,Economic and Social History of New England,1620-1789,Vol.1,p.16.
(4)John Oldmixon,The British Empire in America,Vol.1,New York:Augustus M.Kelly,Classics,1969,p.183.
(5)W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1675-1676,p.221;W.Noel Sainsbury ed.,Calendar of State Papers,Colonial Series,America and West Indies,1677-1680,London:Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce,1896,pp.277,372-373.
(6)A Collection of Original Papers Relative to the History of the Colony of Massachusetts-Bay,Boston:Thomas and John Fleet,1769,p.495.