海外语言与贫困研究的进展与反思
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摘要
受20世纪60年代美国"向贫困宣战"运动的影响,国外学者开始探讨语言与贫困的关系,分别从语言能力与贫困、语言地位与贫困、语言权利与贫困、语言多样性与贫困4个方面分析了语言与贫困的相关性,并从语言地位规划、母语教育、语言资源开发、语言多样性保护等方面提出了一些有益的建议和对策。相关研究促进了语言政策与规划学科的发展,推动了社会公平正义,但仍存在"惜语不惜人"(如为保护语言多样性而牺牲讲话人的权益)、"重母语轻通用语"(过于强调母语教育在减贫中的作用)、理念缺乏可行性(如试图通过将土著人的语言提升为官方语言而解决其贫困问题),以及未能区分绝对贫困和相对贫困(未考虑可感知的贫困对母语人口流失的作用)等方面的问题。
This paper is a review of studies of language and poverty conducted by international scholars. Influenced by the US "War on Poverty" movement in the 1960 s, international scholars began to explore the relevance between language and poverty. The focus of the studies are generally placed on four aspects: language capacity and poverty, language status and poverty, language rights and poverty, and language diversity and poverty. Some useful suggestions and countermeasures have been put forward for language diversity protection, language status planning, mother tongue education, language resource development and language diversity conservation. However, despite their promotion of Language Policy and Planning(LPP) as an academic discipline and their encouragement of social equity and justice, such studies also feature some problems in their argumentations. Among them, issues that are prominent and deserve attention include outweighing languages over human beings(e.g. sacrificing the rights of the speakers for the protection of linguistic diversity); advocating mother language while despising common language(e.g. overemphasizing the role of mother-tongue education in poverty alleviation); infeasibility in proposals(e.g. proposing to reduce indigenous poverty by means of upgrading their languages to official status), and failure to distinguish absolute poverty from relative poverty(e.g. attaching little importance to the effect of perceptible poverty on the loss of native speakers). This review will inform LPP studies in China and provide a reference for policymaking regarding language and poverty.
This paper is a review of studies of language and poverty conducted by international scholars. Influenced by the US "War on Poverty" movement in the 1960 s, international scholars began to explore the relevance between language and poverty. The focus of the studies are generally placed on four aspects: language capacity and poverty, language status and poverty, language rights and poverty, and language diversity and poverty. Some useful suggestions and countermeasures have been put forward for language diversity protection, language status planning, mother tongue education, language resource development and language diversity conservation. However, despite their promotion of Language Policy and Planning(LPP) as an academic discipline and their encouragement of social equity and justice, such studies also feature some problems in their argumentations. Among them, issues that are prominent and deserve attention include outweighing languages over human beings(e.g. sacrificing the rights of the speakers for the protection of linguistic diversity); advocating mother language while despising common language(e.g. overemphasizing the role of mother-tongue education in poverty alleviation); infeasibility in proposals(e.g. proposing to reduce indigenous poverty by means of upgrading their languages to official status), and failure to distinguish absolute poverty from relative poverty(e.g. attaching little importance to the effect of perceptible poverty on the loss of native speakers). This review will inform LPP studies in China and provide a reference for policymaking regarding language and poverty.
引文
陈平2013《政治、经济、社会与海外汉语教学——以澳大利亚为例》,《世界汉语教学》第3期。
方小兵2018《从家庭语言规划到社区语言规划》,《云南师范大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)第6期。
吉尔斯·格雷尼尔2018《论语言及其多样性的经济价值》,刘国辉译,《云南师范大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)第1期。
井上史雄2018《语言景观与语言经济》,包联群译,《中国语言战略》第1期。
李宇明2018《修筑扶贫脱贫的语言大道》,载国家语言文字工作委员会《中国语言生活状况报告(2018)》,北京:商务印书馆。
史维国,杜广慧2018《语言扶贫是新时期普通话推广的重要使命》,《中国社会科学报》10月21日。
王春辉2018《论语言因素在脱贫攻坚中的作用》,《江汉学术》第5期。
徐大明2014《语言贸易:中国和平发展的国际语言战略》,载李宇明《中法语言政策研究》,北京:商务印书馆。
Alsop, R. 2005. Power, Rights, and Poverty:Concepts and Connections. New York:The World Bank.
Ammon, U. 2012. Linguistic inequality and its effects on participation in scientific discourse and on global knowledge accumulation—with a closer look at the problems of the second rank language communities. Applied Linguistic Review 3(2),333-355.
Bernstein, B. 1971. Class, Code and Control:Theoretical Studies Towards a Sociology of Language(Volume 1). London:Routledge Press.
Carrington, L. D. 1997. Social contexts conducive to the vernacularization of literacy. In A. Tabouret-Keller, et al.(eds.), Vernacular Literacy:A Re-evaluation. Oxford:Clarendon Press.
Cobarrubias, J., et al. 1983. Progress in Language Planning. New York:Mouton Publishers.
De Swaan, A. 2001. Words of the World:The Global Language System. Cambridge:Polity Press.
Dobrin, L. M. 2010. Review of language and poverty. Language Documentation and Conservation(4), 159-168.
Duncan, G. J. and K. Magnuson. 2012. Socioeconomic status and cognitive functioning. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science 3(3), 377-386.
Fasold, R. 1992. Vernacular-language education reconsidered. In Kingsley Bolton&Helen Kwok(eds.), Sociolinguistics Today:International Perspectives. London:Routledge.
Ferguson, G. 2006. Language Planning and Education. Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press.
Fishman, J. A. 1966. Some contrasts between linguistically homogeneous and linguistically heterogeneous polities. Sociological Inquiry 36(2), 146-158.
Grin, F. 2003. Language Policy Evaluation and the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. London:Palgrave Macmillan.
Grin, F. 2006. Economic considerations in language policy. In Thomas Ricento(ed.), An Introduction to Language Policy:Theory and Method. London:Blackwell, 77-94.
Gruen, G., D. Ottinger, and E. Zigler. 1970. Level of aspiration and the probability learning of middle-and lower-class children.Developmental Psychology 3(1), 133-142.
Gupta, A. F. 1997. When mother-tongue education is not preferred. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18(6),496-506.
Harbert, W., et al. 2009. Language and Poverty. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Johnson, D. 2013. Language Policy. New York:Palgrave Macmillan.
Labov, W. 1970. The logic of nonstandard English. In Frederick Williams(ed.), Language and Poverty:Perspectives on a Theme. New York:Academic Press Inc.
Lambert, W. E., et al. 1960. Evaluational reactions to spoken languages. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 60(1),44-51.
Lipina, S. J. and M. Posner. 2012. The impact of poverty on the development of brain networks. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 6(1), 238.
Lynch, A. 2003. The relationship between second and heritage language acquisition:Notes on research and theory building.Heritage Language Journal 1(1), 26-43.
Marschak, Jacob. 1965. Economics of Language. Behavioral Science 10(2), 135-140.
Mohanty, A. K. 2009. Perpetuating inequality:Language disadvantage and capability deprivation of tribal mother tongue speakers in India. In W. Harbert, et al.(eds.), Language and Poverty. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Mufwene, S. S. 2010. The role of mother-tongue schooling in eradicating poverty:A response to language and poverty. Language 86(4), 910-932.
Nettle, D. 2000. Linguistic fragmentation and the wealth of nations:The fishman-pool hypothesis reexamined. Economic Development&Cultural Change 48(2), 335-348.
Ogbu, J. U. 1987. Variability in minority school performance:A problem in search of an explanation. Anthropology and Education Quarterly 18(4), 312-334.
Ottaviano, P. and G. Peri. 2005. Cities and cultures. Journal of Urban Economics 2, 304-337.
Pennycook, A. 2002. Mother tongues, governmentality, and protectionism. International Journal of the Sociology of Language154, 11-28.
Pool, J. 1972. National development and language diversity. In J. A. Fishman(ed.), Advances in the Sociology of Language(Volume2). The Hague:Mouton.
Ricento, T. 2005. Problems with the"language-as-resource"discourse in the promotion of heritage languages in the USA. Journal of Sociolinguistics 9(3), 348-368.
Romaine, S. 2009. Biodiversity, linguistic diversity and poverty:Some global patterns and missing links. In W. Harbert, S. McConnell-Ginet, A. Miller, and J. Whitman(eds.), Language and Poverty. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Sharp, A. M., et al. 2012. Economics of Social Issues(20th edition). New York:McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. 2000. Linguistic human rights and teachers of English. In. J. K. Hall and W. G. Eggington(eds.), The Sociopolitics of English Language Teaching. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Taylor, F. 2013. Multilingual Britain. London:Cumberland Lodge.
Tollefson, J. 1991. Planning Language, Planning Inequality. New York:Addison Wesley Longman.
UNESCO. 1953. The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education; Monographs on Fundamental Education, VIII. Paris:UNESCO.
UNESCO. 2000~2018. Message from Director-General of UNESCO on the Occasion of International Mother Language Day.Accessed at http://www.unesco.org/.
Vaillancourt, F. 2009. Language and poverty:Measurement, determinants and policy responses. In W. Harbert, et al.(eds.), Language and Poverty. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Whiteley, P. 2009. Losing the names:Native languages, identity and the state. In W. Harbert, et al.(eds.), Language and Poverty. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Williams, F. 1970. Some preliminaries and prospects. In Frederick Williams(ed.), Language and Poverty:Perspectives on a Theme. New York:Academic Press.
World Bank. 1980. Education Sector Policy Paper. Washington, DC:World Bank.
方小兵2018《从家庭语言规划到社区语言规划》,《云南师范大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)第6期。
吉尔斯·格雷尼尔2018《论语言及其多样性的经济价值》,刘国辉译,《云南师范大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)第1期。
井上史雄2018《语言景观与语言经济》,包联群译,《中国语言战略》第1期。
李宇明2018《修筑扶贫脱贫的语言大道》,载国家语言文字工作委员会《中国语言生活状况报告(2018)》,北京:商务印书馆。
史维国,杜广慧2018《语言扶贫是新时期普通话推广的重要使命》,《中国社会科学报》10月21日。
王春辉2018《论语言因素在脱贫攻坚中的作用》,《江汉学术》第5期。
徐大明2014《语言贸易:中国和平发展的国际语言战略》,载李宇明《中法语言政策研究》,北京:商务印书馆。
Alsop, R. 2005. Power, Rights, and Poverty:Concepts and Connections. New York:The World Bank.
Ammon, U. 2012. Linguistic inequality and its effects on participation in scientific discourse and on global knowledge accumulation—with a closer look at the problems of the second rank language communities. Applied Linguistic Review 3(2),333-355.
Bernstein, B. 1971. Class, Code and Control:Theoretical Studies Towards a Sociology of Language(Volume 1). London:Routledge Press.
Carrington, L. D. 1997. Social contexts conducive to the vernacularization of literacy. In A. Tabouret-Keller, et al.(eds.), Vernacular Literacy:A Re-evaluation. Oxford:Clarendon Press.
Cobarrubias, J., et al. 1983. Progress in Language Planning. New York:Mouton Publishers.
De Swaan, A. 2001. Words of the World:The Global Language System. Cambridge:Polity Press.
Dobrin, L. M. 2010. Review of language and poverty. Language Documentation and Conservation(4), 159-168.
Duncan, G. J. and K. Magnuson. 2012. Socioeconomic status and cognitive functioning. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science 3(3), 377-386.
Fasold, R. 1992. Vernacular-language education reconsidered. In Kingsley Bolton&Helen Kwok(eds.), Sociolinguistics Today:International Perspectives. London:Routledge.
Ferguson, G. 2006. Language Planning and Education. Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press.
Fishman, J. A. 1966. Some contrasts between linguistically homogeneous and linguistically heterogeneous polities. Sociological Inquiry 36(2), 146-158.
Grin, F. 2003. Language Policy Evaluation and the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. London:Palgrave Macmillan.
Grin, F. 2006. Economic considerations in language policy. In Thomas Ricento(ed.), An Introduction to Language Policy:Theory and Method. London:Blackwell, 77-94.
Gruen, G., D. Ottinger, and E. Zigler. 1970. Level of aspiration and the probability learning of middle-and lower-class children.Developmental Psychology 3(1), 133-142.
Gupta, A. F. 1997. When mother-tongue education is not preferred. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18(6),496-506.
Harbert, W., et al. 2009. Language and Poverty. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Johnson, D. 2013. Language Policy. New York:Palgrave Macmillan.
Labov, W. 1970. The logic of nonstandard English. In Frederick Williams(ed.), Language and Poverty:Perspectives on a Theme. New York:Academic Press Inc.
Lambert, W. E., et al. 1960. Evaluational reactions to spoken languages. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 60(1),44-51.
Lipina, S. J. and M. Posner. 2012. The impact of poverty on the development of brain networks. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 6(1), 238.
Lynch, A. 2003. The relationship between second and heritage language acquisition:Notes on research and theory building.Heritage Language Journal 1(1), 26-43.
Marschak, Jacob. 1965. Economics of Language. Behavioral Science 10(2), 135-140.
Mohanty, A. K. 2009. Perpetuating inequality:Language disadvantage and capability deprivation of tribal mother tongue speakers in India. In W. Harbert, et al.(eds.), Language and Poverty. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Mufwene, S. S. 2010. The role of mother-tongue schooling in eradicating poverty:A response to language and poverty. Language 86(4), 910-932.
Nettle, D. 2000. Linguistic fragmentation and the wealth of nations:The fishman-pool hypothesis reexamined. Economic Development&Cultural Change 48(2), 335-348.
Ogbu, J. U. 1987. Variability in minority school performance:A problem in search of an explanation. Anthropology and Education Quarterly 18(4), 312-334.
Ottaviano, P. and G. Peri. 2005. Cities and cultures. Journal of Urban Economics 2, 304-337.
Pennycook, A. 2002. Mother tongues, governmentality, and protectionism. International Journal of the Sociology of Language154, 11-28.
Pool, J. 1972. National development and language diversity. In J. A. Fishman(ed.), Advances in the Sociology of Language(Volume2). The Hague:Mouton.
Ricento, T. 2005. Problems with the"language-as-resource"discourse in the promotion of heritage languages in the USA. Journal of Sociolinguistics 9(3), 348-368.
Romaine, S. 2009. Biodiversity, linguistic diversity and poverty:Some global patterns and missing links. In W. Harbert, S. McConnell-Ginet, A. Miller, and J. Whitman(eds.), Language and Poverty. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Sharp, A. M., et al. 2012. Economics of Social Issues(20th edition). New York:McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. 2000. Linguistic human rights and teachers of English. In. J. K. Hall and W. G. Eggington(eds.), The Sociopolitics of English Language Teaching. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Taylor, F. 2013. Multilingual Britain. London:Cumberland Lodge.
Tollefson, J. 1991. Planning Language, Planning Inequality. New York:Addison Wesley Longman.
UNESCO. 1953. The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education; Monographs on Fundamental Education, VIII. Paris:UNESCO.
UNESCO. 2000~2018. Message from Director-General of UNESCO on the Occasion of International Mother Language Day.Accessed at http://www.unesco.org/.
Vaillancourt, F. 2009. Language and poverty:Measurement, determinants and policy responses. In W. Harbert, et al.(eds.), Language and Poverty. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Whiteley, P. 2009. Losing the names:Native languages, identity and the state. In W. Harbert, et al.(eds.), Language and Poverty. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Williams, F. 1970. Some preliminaries and prospects. In Frederick Williams(ed.), Language and Poverty:Perspectives on a Theme. New York:Academic Press.
World Bank. 1980. Education Sector Policy Paper. Washington, DC:World Bank.