调节定向和调节匹配对情感预测中影响偏差的影响
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摘要
现实生活中,人们在决策前需要对决策可能带来的结果进行预测。人们往往会高估未来事件对其情绪的影响,这被称为影响偏差。本研究从自我调节理论的视角出发,考察了调节定向和调节匹配对情感预测中影响偏差的影响。实验1和实验2分别在积极和消极情景中考察了调节定向对情感预测偏差的影响;实验3和实验4分别在消极和积极情景中考察了调节匹配对情感预测偏差的影响。结果发现:(1)在对积极情感的预测中,促进定向个体比防御定向个体出现更大的影响偏差;在对消极情感的预测中,防御定向个体比促进定向个体出现更大的影响偏差。(2)调节匹配比调节不匹配条件下,个体会出现更大的影响偏差。因此,情感预测中的影响偏差是个体实现目标的一种自我调节策略,会受到调节定向和调节匹配的影响。
Our minor and major decision are often dependent on our predictions of how pleasant or unpleasant these events would make us feel, that is, our affective forecasts(Wilson & Gilbert, 2003). People overestimate the intensity and duration of their affective reactions to the event in focus, which is called the impact bias(Wilson & Gilbert, 2003). Most previous studies have focused on the cognitive sources of impact bias and the individual differences in impact bias. However, few studies have shed light on the motivated underpinnings of impact bias. The present research examined people's overestimation of the hedonic impact of future events as a form of self-regulation. That is, sometimes people use impact bias to motivate themselves to actualize their goals. Thus, based on the self-regulatory theory, this study aimed to explore the effects of regulatory focus and regulatory fit on the impact biases. The hypotheses were:(i) in forecasting positive affect, individuals with promotive focus would show greater impact bias than those with preventive focus(H1 a);(ii) in forecasting negative affect, individuals with preventive focus would show greater impact bias than those with promotive focus(H1 b);(iii) regulatory fit would induce impact bias(H2). In Experiment 1, we examined the influences of regulatory focus on impact biases in forecasting positive affect. A total of 61 undergraduates were randomly divided into 2 conditions, specifically, promotive focus priming and preventive focus priming. They were then asked to finish a discriminability test. Before the test, they predicted the happiness of success in the test. After the test, they were told that they had succeeded in the test, and were asked to report their actual happiness of success in the test. Independent-sample t-test showed that participants with promotive focus overestimated the pleasant of success in discriminability test more than those with preventive focus. In Experiment 2, we tested the influences of regulatory focus on impact biases in forecasting negative affect. Participants' predominant predisposition for a promotion or prevention state was measured first before they performed a memory task. Before the task, they predicted how happy they would be after a failure in the test. Then, they were told that they failed in the memory test and were asked to evaluate how happy they were. Independent-sample t-test showed that participants with preventive focus overestimated the unhappiness of failure in memory test more than those with promotive focus. In Experiment 3, we tested the influence of regulatory fit on impact biases in forecasting negative affect by 2(Regulatory focus: promotion vs prevention) × 2(Strategy: eagerness vs vigilance) between-subject design. A total of 120 undergraduates were randomly divided into 4 groups and were asked to finish a memory test. Before the test, they predicted the unhappiness of failure in the test. After the test, they were told that they had failed in the test, and were asked to report their actual unhappiness of the failure in the test. The results showed that participants overestimate the unhappiness of failure in memory test in the condition of regulatory fit more than in the regulatory non-fit condition. In Experiment 4, we tested the effect of regulatory fit on impact bias in forecasting positive affect. A total of 128 undergraduates were randomly divided into 4 groups and were asked to finish a finding differences test. Before the test, they predicted how happy they would be after the success in the test. After the test, they were told that they had succeeded in the test, and were asked to report their actual happiness of the success. The results showed that participants overestimate the happiness in the condition of regulatory fit more than regulatory non-fit condition. The present research investigated the motivated underpinning of impact bias based under the theory of self-regulatory, which helps our further understanding of the mechanism of impact bias. In addition, it can also help us to manage the improvement of the work engagement of employees. Limitations and further research have been discussed as well.
Our minor and major decision are often dependent on our predictions of how pleasant or unpleasant these events would make us feel, that is, our affective forecasts(Wilson & Gilbert, 2003). People overestimate the intensity and duration of their affective reactions to the event in focus, which is called the impact bias(Wilson & Gilbert, 2003). Most previous studies have focused on the cognitive sources of impact bias and the individual differences in impact bias. However, few studies have shed light on the motivated underpinnings of impact bias. The present research examined people's overestimation of the hedonic impact of future events as a form of self-regulation. That is, sometimes people use impact bias to motivate themselves to actualize their goals. Thus, based on the self-regulatory theory, this study aimed to explore the effects of regulatory focus and regulatory fit on the impact biases. The hypotheses were:(i) in forecasting positive affect, individuals with promotive focus would show greater impact bias than those with preventive focus(H1 a);(ii) in forecasting negative affect, individuals with preventive focus would show greater impact bias than those with promotive focus(H1 b);(iii) regulatory fit would induce impact bias(H2). In Experiment 1, we examined the influences of regulatory focus on impact biases in forecasting positive affect. A total of 61 undergraduates were randomly divided into 2 conditions, specifically, promotive focus priming and preventive focus priming. They were then asked to finish a discriminability test. Before the test, they predicted the happiness of success in the test. After the test, they were told that they had succeeded in the test, and were asked to report their actual happiness of success in the test. Independent-sample t-test showed that participants with promotive focus overestimated the pleasant of success in discriminability test more than those with preventive focus. In Experiment 2, we tested the influences of regulatory focus on impact biases in forecasting negative affect. Participants' predominant predisposition for a promotion or prevention state was measured first before they performed a memory task. Before the task, they predicted how happy they would be after a failure in the test. Then, they were told that they failed in the memory test and were asked to evaluate how happy they were. Independent-sample t-test showed that participants with preventive focus overestimated the unhappiness of failure in memory test more than those with promotive focus. In Experiment 3, we tested the influence of regulatory fit on impact biases in forecasting negative affect by 2(Regulatory focus: promotion vs prevention) × 2(Strategy: eagerness vs vigilance) between-subject design. A total of 120 undergraduates were randomly divided into 4 groups and were asked to finish a memory test. Before the test, they predicted the unhappiness of failure in the test. After the test, they were told that they had failed in the test, and were asked to report their actual unhappiness of the failure in the test. The results showed that participants overestimate the unhappiness of failure in memory test in the condition of regulatory fit more than in the regulatory non-fit condition. In Experiment 4, we tested the effect of regulatory fit on impact bias in forecasting positive affect. A total of 128 undergraduates were randomly divided into 4 groups and were asked to finish a finding differences test. Before the test, they predicted how happy they would be after the success in the test. After the test, they were told that they had succeeded in the test, and were asked to report their actual happiness of the success. The results showed that participants overestimate the happiness in the condition of regulatory fit more than regulatory non-fit condition. The present research investigated the motivated underpinning of impact bias based under the theory of self-regulatory, which helps our further understanding of the mechanism of impact bias. In addition, it can also help us to manage the improvement of the work engagement of employees. Limitations and further research have been discussed as well.
引文
Avnet,T.,&Higgins,E.T.(2003).Locomotion,assessment,and regulatory fit:Value transfer from“how”to“what”.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,39(5),525-530.
Bosone,L.,Martinez,F.,&Kalampalikis,N.(2015).When the model fits the frame:The impact of regulatory fit on efficacy appraisal and persuasion in health communication.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,41(4),526-539.
Buehler,R.,&Mc Farland,C.(2001).Intensity bias in affective forecasting:The role of temporal focus.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,27(11),1480-1493.
Buehler,R.,Mc Farland,C.,Spyropoulos,V.,&Lam,K.C.H.(2007).Motivated prediction of future feelings:Effects of negative mood and mood orientation on affective forecasts.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,33,1265-1278.
Camacho,C.J.,Higgins,E.T.,&Luger,L.(2003).Moral value transfer from regulatory fit:What feels right is right and what feels wrong is wrong.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,84(3),498-510.
Carver,C.S.,&Scheier,M.F.(2011).Self-regulation of action and affect.In K D Vohs&R.F.Baumeister(Eds.),Handbook of self-regulation:Research,theory and applications(pp.3-21).New York,NY:The Guilford Press,
Cesario,J.,Grant,H.,&Higgins,E.T.(2004).Regulatory fit and persuasion:Transfer from“feeling right”.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,86(3),388-404.
Duan,J.Y.,Zhou,R.,Lu,W.J.,Li,J.,&Zhu,Y.C.(2013).The impact of regulatory fit on advice-taking in decision making under different cues.Acta Psychologica Sinica,45(1),104-113.[段锦云,周冉,陆文娟,李晶,朱宜超.(2013).不同反应线索条件下调节匹配对建议采纳的影响.心理学报,45(1),104-113.]
F?rster,J.,Higgins,E.T.,&Bianco,A.T.(2003).Speed/accuracy decisions in task performance:Built-in trade-off or separate strategic concerns?.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,90(1),148-164.
Friedman,R.S.,&F?rster,J.(2001).The effects of promotion and prevention cues on creativity.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,81,1001-1013.
Geng,X.W.,&Zhang,F.(2015).The impact bias in affective forecasting:Focalism or unforeseen adaptation?Journal of Psychological Science,38(5),1201-1206.[耿晓伟,张峰.(2015).情感预测的影响偏差--聚焦错觉还是适应忽视?心理科学,38(5),1201-1206.]
Gilbert,D.T.,Pinel,E.C.,Wilson,T.D.,Blumberg,S.J.,&Wheatley,T.P.(1998).Immune neglect:A source of durability bias in affective forecasting.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,75,617-638.
Gilbert,D.T.,&Ebert,J.E.J.(2002).Decisions and revisions:The affective forecasting of changeable outcomes.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,82(4),503-514.
Higgins,E.T.(1997).Beyond pleasure and pain.American Psychologist,52,1280-1300.
Higgins,E.T.(2000).Making a good decision:Value from fit.American Psychologist,55(11),1217-1230.
Higgins,E.T.,Friedman,R.S.,Harlow,R.E.,Idson,L.C.,Ayduk,O.N.,&Taylor,A.(2001).Achievement orientations from subjective histories of success:Promotion pride versus prevention pride.European Journal of Social Psychology,31(1),3-23.
Higgins,E.T.,&Scholer,A.A.(2009).Engaging the consumer:The science and art of the value creation process.Journal of Consumer Psychology,19(2),100-114.
Higgins,E.T.,&Spiegel,S.(2004).Promotion and prevention strategies for self-regulation:A motivated cognition perspective.In R.F.Baumeister&K.D.Vohs(Eds.),Handbook of self-regulation:Research,theory,and applications(pp.171-187).New York,NY,US:Guilford Press.
Hoerger,M.,Chapman,B.P.,Epstein,R.M.,&Duberstein,P.R.(2012).Emotional intelligence:A theoretical framework for individual differences in affective forecasting.Emotion,12(4),716-725.
Idson,L.C.,Liberman,N.,&Higgins,E.T.(2004).Imagining how you’d feel:The role of motivational experiences from regulatory fit.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,30(7),926-937.
Kunda,Z.(1990).The case for motivated reasoning.Psychological Bulletin,108(3),480-498.
Kurtz,J.L.(2016).Affective forecasting:Teaching a useful,accessible,and humbling area of research.Teaching of Psychology,43(1),80-85.
Lee,Y.H.,Heeter,C.,Magerko,B.,&Medler,B.(2013).Feeling right about how you play:The effects of regulatory fit in games for learning.Games and Culture,8(4),238-258.
Levine,L.J.,Lench,H.C.,Kaplan,R.L.,&Safer,M.A.(2012).Accuracy and artifact:Reexamining the intensity bias in affective forecasting.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,103,584-605.
Li,T.L.(2012).Research on the bias in affective forecasting of university students and its effect mechanism(Unpublished master's thesis).Guangzhou University.[李天莉.(2012).大学生情绪预测偏差影响因素及其与社会行为的实证研究(硕士学位论文).广州大学.]
Liang,Z.,Li,S.,Li,Y.M.,&Liu,C.J.(2007).The impact bias in hedonic prediction.Chinese Mental Health Journal,21(10),693-695.[梁哲,李纾,李岩梅,刘长江.(2007).幸福感预测中的影响偏差.中国心理卫生杂志,21(10),693-695.]
Lin,H.Y.,&Wang,L.(2007).The regulatory fit theory.Advances in Psychological Science,15(5),749-753.[林晖芸,汪玲.(2007).调节性匹配理论述评.心理科学进展,15(5),749-753.]
Lin,S.H.,&Johnson,R.E.(2015).A suggestion to improve a day keeps your depletion away:Examining promotive and prohibitive voice behaviors within a regulatory focus and ego depletion framework.Journal of Applied Psychology,100(5),1381-1397.
Liu,C.H.,Zhang,Y.H.,&Yu,G.L.(2010).Affective forecasting biases and related studies.Advances in Psychological Science,18(8),1246-1255.[刘聪慧,张耀华,俞国良.(2010).情感预测偏差的相关研究评述.心理科学进展,18(8),1246-1255.]
Loewenstein,G.,&Schkade,D.(1999).Wouldn’t it be nice?Predicting future feelings.In D.Kahneman,E.Diener,&N.Schwarz(Eds.),Well-being:The foundations of hedonic psychology(pp.85-105).New York:Russell Sage Foundation.
Luo,H.B.,Xu,F.M.,Guo,Y.Y.,Zheng,Q.Q.,Li,B.,&Zhang,H.(2013).Focusing illusion in affective forecasting.Advances in Psychological Science,21(8),1482-1492.[罗寒冰,徐富明,郭永玉,郑秋强,李彬,张慧.(2013).情感预测中的聚焦错觉.心理科学进展,21(8),1482-1492.]
Meyvis,T.,Ratner,R.K.,&Levav,J.(2010).Why don't we learn to accurately forecast feelings?How misremembering our predictions blinds us to past forecasting errors.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,139(4),579-589.
Molden,D.C.,Lee,A.Y.,&Higgins,E.T.(2008).Motivations for promotion and prevention.In J.Y.Shah&W.L.Gardner(Eds.),Handbook of motivation science(pp.169-187).New York:Guilford Press.
Morewedge,C.K.,&Buechel,E.C.(2013).Motivated underpinnings of the impact bias in affective forecasts.Emotion,13(6),1023-1029.
Pham,M.T.,&Chang,H.H.(2010).Regulatory focus,regulatory fit,and the search and consideration of choice alternatives.Journal of Consumer Research,37(4),626-640.
Shah,J.,Higgins,T.,&Friedman,R.S.(1998).Performance incentives and means:How regulatory focus influences goal attainment.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,74(2),285-293.
van Boven,L.,&Loewenstein,G.(2005).Empathy gaps in emotional perspective taking.In B.F.Malle&S.D.Hodges(Eds.),Other minds:How humans bridge the divide between self and others(pp.284-297).New York,NY:Guilford Press.
Wang,L.,Lin,H.Y.,&Pang,X.M.(2011).The coincidence between the regulatory fit effects based on chronic regulatory focus and situational regulatory focus.Acta Psychologica Sinica,43(5),553-560.[汪玲,林晖芸,逄晓鸣.(2011).特质性与情境性调节定向匹配效应的一致性.心理学报,43(5),553-560.]
Wilson,T.D.,&Gilbert,D.T.(2003).Affective forecasting.In M.P.Zanna(Ed.),Advances in experimental social psychology(Vol.35,pp.345-411).San Diego,CA:Academic Press.
Wilson,T.D.,&Gilbert,D.T.(2013).The impact bias is alive and well.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,105(5),740-748.
Wilson,T.D.,Wheatley,T.,Meyers,J.M.,Gilbert,D.T.,&Axsom,D.(2000).Focalism:A source of durability bias in affective forecasting.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,78,821-836.
Wirtz,D.,Kruger,J.,Scollon,C.N.,&Diener,E.(2003).What to do on spring break?The role of predicted,on-line,and remembered experience in future choice.Psychological Science,14,520-524.
Woltin,K.A.,&Yzerbyt,V.(2015).Regulatory focus in predictions about others.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,41(3),379-392.
Yao,Q.,Yue,G.A.,Wu,C.C.,Li,Y.F.,&Chen,C.(2008).Measurement of regulatory focus:The reliability and validity of Chinese version of regulatory focus questionnaire.Chinese Journal of Applied Psychology,14(4),318-323.[姚琦,乐国安,伍承聪,李燕飞,陈晨.(2008).调节定向的测量维度及其问卷的信度和效度检验.应用心理学,14(4),318-323.]
Zelenski,J.M.,Whelan,D.C.,Nealis,L.J.,Besner,C.M.,Santoro,M.S.,&Wynn,J.E.(2013).Personality and affective forecasting:Trait introverts underpredict the hedonic benefits of acting extraverted.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,104(6),1092-1108.
Zhang,Y.,&Fishbach,A.(2010).Counteracting obstacles with optimistic predictions.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,139,16-31.
Bosone,L.,Martinez,F.,&Kalampalikis,N.(2015).When the model fits the frame:The impact of regulatory fit on efficacy appraisal and persuasion in health communication.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,41(4),526-539.
Buehler,R.,&Mc Farland,C.(2001).Intensity bias in affective forecasting:The role of temporal focus.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,27(11),1480-1493.
Buehler,R.,Mc Farland,C.,Spyropoulos,V.,&Lam,K.C.H.(2007).Motivated prediction of future feelings:Effects of negative mood and mood orientation on affective forecasts.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,33,1265-1278.
Camacho,C.J.,Higgins,E.T.,&Luger,L.(2003).Moral value transfer from regulatory fit:What feels right is right and what feels wrong is wrong.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,84(3),498-510.
Carver,C.S.,&Scheier,M.F.(2011).Self-regulation of action and affect.In K D Vohs&R.F.Baumeister(Eds.),Handbook of self-regulation:Research,theory and applications(pp.3-21).New York,NY:The Guilford Press,
Cesario,J.,Grant,H.,&Higgins,E.T.(2004).Regulatory fit and persuasion:Transfer from“feeling right”.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,86(3),388-404.
Duan,J.Y.,Zhou,R.,Lu,W.J.,Li,J.,&Zhu,Y.C.(2013).The impact of regulatory fit on advice-taking in decision making under different cues.Acta Psychologica Sinica,45(1),104-113.[段锦云,周冉,陆文娟,李晶,朱宜超.(2013).不同反应线索条件下调节匹配对建议采纳的影响.心理学报,45(1),104-113.]
F?rster,J.,Higgins,E.T.,&Bianco,A.T.(2003).Speed/accuracy decisions in task performance:Built-in trade-off or separate strategic concerns?.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,90(1),148-164.
Friedman,R.S.,&F?rster,J.(2001).The effects of promotion and prevention cues on creativity.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,81,1001-1013.
Geng,X.W.,&Zhang,F.(2015).The impact bias in affective forecasting:Focalism or unforeseen adaptation?Journal of Psychological Science,38(5),1201-1206.[耿晓伟,张峰.(2015).情感预测的影响偏差--聚焦错觉还是适应忽视?心理科学,38(5),1201-1206.]
Gilbert,D.T.,Pinel,E.C.,Wilson,T.D.,Blumberg,S.J.,&Wheatley,T.P.(1998).Immune neglect:A source of durability bias in affective forecasting.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,75,617-638.
Gilbert,D.T.,&Ebert,J.E.J.(2002).Decisions and revisions:The affective forecasting of changeable outcomes.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,82(4),503-514.
Higgins,E.T.(1997).Beyond pleasure and pain.American Psychologist,52,1280-1300.
Higgins,E.T.(2000).Making a good decision:Value from fit.American Psychologist,55(11),1217-1230.
Higgins,E.T.,Friedman,R.S.,Harlow,R.E.,Idson,L.C.,Ayduk,O.N.,&Taylor,A.(2001).Achievement orientations from subjective histories of success:Promotion pride versus prevention pride.European Journal of Social Psychology,31(1),3-23.
Higgins,E.T.,&Scholer,A.A.(2009).Engaging the consumer:The science and art of the value creation process.Journal of Consumer Psychology,19(2),100-114.
Higgins,E.T.,&Spiegel,S.(2004).Promotion and prevention strategies for self-regulation:A motivated cognition perspective.In R.F.Baumeister&K.D.Vohs(Eds.),Handbook of self-regulation:Research,theory,and applications(pp.171-187).New York,NY,US:Guilford Press.
Hoerger,M.,Chapman,B.P.,Epstein,R.M.,&Duberstein,P.R.(2012).Emotional intelligence:A theoretical framework for individual differences in affective forecasting.Emotion,12(4),716-725.
Idson,L.C.,Liberman,N.,&Higgins,E.T.(2004).Imagining how you’d feel:The role of motivational experiences from regulatory fit.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,30(7),926-937.
Kunda,Z.(1990).The case for motivated reasoning.Psychological Bulletin,108(3),480-498.
Kurtz,J.L.(2016).Affective forecasting:Teaching a useful,accessible,and humbling area of research.Teaching of Psychology,43(1),80-85.
Lee,Y.H.,Heeter,C.,Magerko,B.,&Medler,B.(2013).Feeling right about how you play:The effects of regulatory fit in games for learning.Games and Culture,8(4),238-258.
Levine,L.J.,Lench,H.C.,Kaplan,R.L.,&Safer,M.A.(2012).Accuracy and artifact:Reexamining the intensity bias in affective forecasting.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,103,584-605.
Li,T.L.(2012).Research on the bias in affective forecasting of university students and its effect mechanism(Unpublished master's thesis).Guangzhou University.[李天莉.(2012).大学生情绪预测偏差影响因素及其与社会行为的实证研究(硕士学位论文).广州大学.]
Liang,Z.,Li,S.,Li,Y.M.,&Liu,C.J.(2007).The impact bias in hedonic prediction.Chinese Mental Health Journal,21(10),693-695.[梁哲,李纾,李岩梅,刘长江.(2007).幸福感预测中的影响偏差.中国心理卫生杂志,21(10),693-695.]
Lin,H.Y.,&Wang,L.(2007).The regulatory fit theory.Advances in Psychological Science,15(5),749-753.[林晖芸,汪玲.(2007).调节性匹配理论述评.心理科学进展,15(5),749-753.]
Lin,S.H.,&Johnson,R.E.(2015).A suggestion to improve a day keeps your depletion away:Examining promotive and prohibitive voice behaviors within a regulatory focus and ego depletion framework.Journal of Applied Psychology,100(5),1381-1397.
Liu,C.H.,Zhang,Y.H.,&Yu,G.L.(2010).Affective forecasting biases and related studies.Advances in Psychological Science,18(8),1246-1255.[刘聪慧,张耀华,俞国良.(2010).情感预测偏差的相关研究评述.心理科学进展,18(8),1246-1255.]
Loewenstein,G.,&Schkade,D.(1999).Wouldn’t it be nice?Predicting future feelings.In D.Kahneman,E.Diener,&N.Schwarz(Eds.),Well-being:The foundations of hedonic psychology(pp.85-105).New York:Russell Sage Foundation.
Luo,H.B.,Xu,F.M.,Guo,Y.Y.,Zheng,Q.Q.,Li,B.,&Zhang,H.(2013).Focusing illusion in affective forecasting.Advances in Psychological Science,21(8),1482-1492.[罗寒冰,徐富明,郭永玉,郑秋强,李彬,张慧.(2013).情感预测中的聚焦错觉.心理科学进展,21(8),1482-1492.]
Meyvis,T.,Ratner,R.K.,&Levav,J.(2010).Why don't we learn to accurately forecast feelings?How misremembering our predictions blinds us to past forecasting errors.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,139(4),579-589.
Molden,D.C.,Lee,A.Y.,&Higgins,E.T.(2008).Motivations for promotion and prevention.In J.Y.Shah&W.L.Gardner(Eds.),Handbook of motivation science(pp.169-187).New York:Guilford Press.
Morewedge,C.K.,&Buechel,E.C.(2013).Motivated underpinnings of the impact bias in affective forecasts.Emotion,13(6),1023-1029.
Pham,M.T.,&Chang,H.H.(2010).Regulatory focus,regulatory fit,and the search and consideration of choice alternatives.Journal of Consumer Research,37(4),626-640.
Shah,J.,Higgins,T.,&Friedman,R.S.(1998).Performance incentives and means:How regulatory focus influences goal attainment.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,74(2),285-293.
van Boven,L.,&Loewenstein,G.(2005).Empathy gaps in emotional perspective taking.In B.F.Malle&S.D.Hodges(Eds.),Other minds:How humans bridge the divide between self and others(pp.284-297).New York,NY:Guilford Press.
Wang,L.,Lin,H.Y.,&Pang,X.M.(2011).The coincidence between the regulatory fit effects based on chronic regulatory focus and situational regulatory focus.Acta Psychologica Sinica,43(5),553-560.[汪玲,林晖芸,逄晓鸣.(2011).特质性与情境性调节定向匹配效应的一致性.心理学报,43(5),553-560.]
Wilson,T.D.,&Gilbert,D.T.(2003).Affective forecasting.In M.P.Zanna(Ed.),Advances in experimental social psychology(Vol.35,pp.345-411).San Diego,CA:Academic Press.
Wilson,T.D.,&Gilbert,D.T.(2013).The impact bias is alive and well.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,105(5),740-748.
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Wirtz,D.,Kruger,J.,Scollon,C.N.,&Diener,E.(2003).What to do on spring break?The role of predicted,on-line,and remembered experience in future choice.Psychological Science,14,520-524.
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