“去族群化”:大屠杀后卢旺达身份政治的重建
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摘要
身份政治是每个多族群国家都无法回避的重大议题,并为此形成多种可操作的应对模式。在卢旺达,经历大屠杀惨痛教训后建立起来的卢爱阵政权选择了带有理想主义情怀的"去族群化"策略,力图"一劳永逸"地消解与弱化会引发暴力和冲突的(族群)身份政治力量;建构具有一体化的"卢旺达人"国族身份,强化人民的"向心力",巩固国家的稳定与团结。然而在具体实践当中,卢旺达依然没有摆脱身份政治被用来争夺利益与进行资源配置的困局:去族群化也仅是在一定程度上"隐蔽"了族群身份的边界,却又形成"大屠杀受害者=图西人""大屠杀施害者=胡图人"两组不加区别的对抗性等式,提醒人们"族性"在这个国家的显著意义。
Every nation-state has to faceabig issue of identity politics, and forms its own operational coping modes respectively. Having drawn lessons from Rwanda Genocide of 1994, the present FPR government idealistically practiced "De-ethnicization Strategy" to integrate and weaken the identity politic forces with violent and conflicting inclinations. Based on the strategy, Rwanda government pursued to construct a homogeneous "Rwandaness", improve national cohesion and consolidate national solidarity and stabilization. However, in practice, Rwanda still put itself in the dilemma initiated by inner struggling for identity privileges. De-ethnicization Strategy to some extent concealed the boundaries of ethnic identities, but at the same time, produced two new antagonistic groups instead, namely, the victim Tutsi and the injurer Hutu in Genocide, it strengthens the salient significance of "ethnicity" in Rwanda.
Every nation-state has to faceabig issue of identity politics, and forms its own operational coping modes respectively. Having drawn lessons from Rwanda Genocide of 1994, the present FPR government idealistically practiced "De-ethnicization Strategy" to integrate and weaken the identity politic forces with violent and conflicting inclinations. Based on the strategy, Rwanda government pursued to construct a homogeneous "Rwandaness", improve national cohesion and consolidate national solidarity and stabilization. However, in practice, Rwanda still put itself in the dilemma initiated by inner struggling for identity privileges. De-ethnicization Strategy to some extent concealed the boundaries of ethnic identities, but at the same time, produced two new antagonistic groups instead, namely, the victim Tutsi and the injurer Hutu in Genocide, it strengthens the salient significance of "ethnicity" in Rwanda.
引文
(1)Richard Thompson Ford, “Political Identity as Identity Politics”, Harvard Journal of the Legal Left, vol.1, 2005, p.53.
(2)Mary Bernstein, “Identity Politics”, Annual Review of Sociology, vol.31, 2005, pp.47-48.
(3)卢爱阵是以流亡乌干达的图西人为主建立的一个政治组织,1994年重返卢旺达取得政权后至今一直是该国的执政党。
(4)Stef Vandeginste, “Political Representation of Minorities as Collateral Damage or Gain: The Batwa in Burundi and Rwanda”, Africa Spectrum, vol.49, no.1, 2014, p.10.
(5)Susan M.Thomson, “Resisting Reconciliation: State Power and Everyday Life in Post-Genocide Rwanda”, Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Dalhousie University, 2009, p.168.
(6)Martha Mutisi, “Local Conflict Resolution in Rwanda: The Case of Abunzi Mediators”, African Journal on Conflict Resolution, no.2, 2012, p.54.
(7)Villia Jefremovas, “Society Contested Identities: Power and the Fictions of Ethnicity, Ethnography and History in Rwanda”, Anthropologica, vol.39, no.1/2, 1997, p.102.
(8)卢旺达政府网站:http://gov.rw/home/history/
(9)Jean Baptiste Habyaliman, “Foreword”, in Déo Byanafashe, Paul Rutayisire(eds.), History of Rwanda: From The Beginning to The End of The Twentieth Century, National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, p.XXV, 2016. 2001年原版本法文版,2016英文版是在和解委员会主持下从法文版翻译和修订而成。
(10)图西人建立的古代王国,是卢旺达现代国家的前身。
(11)Timothy Longman and Théoneste Rutagengwa, “ Memory, Identity, and Community in Rwanda”, in Eric Stover and Harvey Weinstein (eds.), My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice and Community in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p.165.
(12)Paul Kagame, speech delivered at the “Evaluation Day of National Unity and Reconciliation(Kibuye, Rwanda, 23 November 2001)”, in Rwandan National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, Report on the Evaluation of National Unity and Reconciliation, 2002, p.6.
(13)Ingelaere Bert, “Do We Understand Life After Genocide? Centre and Periphery in the Knowledge Construction in/on Rwanda”, Institute of Development Policy and Management(University of Antwerp) Working Paper, no.2, 2009, p.14.
(14)《卢旺达宪法》(2003年):The Constitution of The Republic of Rwanda, 2003. 下载网址为:http://www.rwandahope.com/constitution.pdf
(15)Beth Lewis Samuelson and Sarah Warshauer Freedman, “Language Policy, Multilingual Education, and Power in Rwanda”, Language Policy, vol.9, 2010, p.198.
(16)Chi Mgbako, “Ingando Solidarity Camps: Reconciliation and Political Indoctrination in Post-Genocide Rwanda”, Harvard Human Rights Journal, vol.18, 2005, p.204.
(17)“Rwandpedia”是卢旺达一家搜集、整理数字资料和档案的网站,上述数据来自该网站:http://www.rwandapedia.rw/explore/ingando
(18)Chi Mgbako, “Ingando Solidarity Camps: Reconciliation and Political Indoctrination in Post-Genocide Rwanda”, p. 218.
(19)Alphonse Bakusi, “National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, Republic of Rwanda” (speech given at a monthly meeting of the “Coexistence Network,” entitled “Les Premiers Indicateurs de Coexistence Pacifique et de CohéSionsociale sur les Collines après la libéRation Provisoire des Présumés Génocidaires,” Kigali, Rwanda, 26 June 2003). 转引自Radha Webley,Report on Rwanda, University of California at Berkeley War Crimes Studies Center, p.41. 该文下载的网址为:https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/～changmin/Papers/webley-thesis.pdf
(20)Rwandan National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, “Rwanda Reconciliation Barometer”, 2015, pp.34-48.
(21)姚新勇:《国家、资源、竞争与族群冲突》,载《读书》,2009年第10期。
(22)[加]威尔·金里卡,刘曙辉译:《多民族国家中的认同政治》,载《马克思主义与现实》,2010年第2期。
(23)Guilherme Simoes Reis, “The Political-Ideological Path of Frelimo in Mozambique, from 1962 to 2012”, The XXIInd World Congress of Political Science 8-12, July, 2012, p.3.
(24)Azinna Nwafor, “FRELIMO and Socialism in Mozambique”, Contemporary Marxism, no.7, 1983, p.39.
(25)[加]威尔·金里卡著,刘曙辉译:《多民族国家中的认同政治》,载《马克思主义与现实》,2010年第2期。
(26)张静主编:《身份认同研究:观念、态度、理据》,上海人民出版社,2006年,第3页。
(27)李建华:《从身份政治到公民政治·中国农民工市民化及其权益保障序》,载《书屋》,2010年第9期。
(28)Helen Hintjens, “Post-genocide Identity Politics in Rwanda”, Ethnicities,vol.8(1), 2008, p.14.
(29)Susan M.Thomson, “Resisting Reconciliation: State Power and Everyday Life in Post-Genocide Rwanda”, p.174.
(30)Sigrun Marie Moss, “Beyond Conflict and Spoilt Identities: How Rwandan Leaders Justify a Single Recategorization Model for Post-Conflict Reconciliation”, Journal of Social and Political Psychology, vol. 2(1), 2014.
(31)Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda, Princeton University Press, 2002, p.5.
(32)Helen Hintjens, “Post-genocide Identity Politics in Rwanda”, p.22.
(33)Nigel Eltringham, Accounting For Horror:Post-Genocide Debates in Rwanda, Pluto Press, 2004, p.70.
(34)Radha Webley,“Report on Rwanda”, p.28.
(35)Kristin C.Doughty, “Contesting Community: Legalized Reconciliation Efforts in The Aftermath of Genocide in Rwanda”, Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at University of Pennsylvania, 2011, p.17.
(36)Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda, p.271.
(37)Beth Lewis Samuelson and Sarah Warshauer Freedman, “Language Policy, Multilingual Education, and Power in Rwanda”,p.202.
(38)Joseph Assan and Lawrence Walker, “The Political Economy of Contemporary Education and the Challenges of Switching Formal Language to English in Rwanda”, In Maddalena Campioniand Patrick Noack(eds.), Rwanda Fast Forward: Social, Economic, Military and Reconciliation Prospects, Palgrave Macmillan, 2012, p.185.
(39)何俊芳、周庆生编著:《语言冲突研究·前言》,中央民族大学出版社,2010年,第3页。
(40)Tope Omoniyi, “Local Policies and Global Forces: Multiliteracy and Africa’s Indigenous Languages”, Language Policy, vol.2, 2003, p.147.
(41)Eddie Williams, “Language Policy,Politics and Development in Africa”, In Hywel Coleman (ed.) Dreams and Realities: Developing Countries and the English Language, British Council, 2011, p.44.
(42)[英]斯图亚特·霍尔、保罗·杜盖伊著,庞璃译:《文化身份问题研究》,河南大学出版社,2010年,第3页。
(43)吕春颖:《异质性哲学视野中的现代身份政治——以阿伦特和伯林对犹太复国主义的分歧为例》,载《求是学刊》,2013年第4期。
(2)Mary Bernstein, “Identity Politics”, Annual Review of Sociology, vol.31, 2005, pp.47-48.
(3)卢爱阵是以流亡乌干达的图西人为主建立的一个政治组织,1994年重返卢旺达取得政权后至今一直是该国的执政党。
(4)Stef Vandeginste, “Political Representation of Minorities as Collateral Damage or Gain: The Batwa in Burundi and Rwanda”, Africa Spectrum, vol.49, no.1, 2014, p.10.
(5)Susan M.Thomson, “Resisting Reconciliation: State Power and Everyday Life in Post-Genocide Rwanda”, Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Dalhousie University, 2009, p.168.
(6)Martha Mutisi, “Local Conflict Resolution in Rwanda: The Case of Abunzi Mediators”, African Journal on Conflict Resolution, no.2, 2012, p.54.
(7)Villia Jefremovas, “Society Contested Identities: Power and the Fictions of Ethnicity, Ethnography and History in Rwanda”, Anthropologica, vol.39, no.1/2, 1997, p.102.
(8)卢旺达政府网站:http://gov.rw/home/history/
(9)Jean Baptiste Habyaliman, “Foreword”, in Déo Byanafashe, Paul Rutayisire(eds.), History of Rwanda: From The Beginning to The End of The Twentieth Century, National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, p.XXV, 2016. 2001年原版本法文版,2016英文版是在和解委员会主持下从法文版翻译和修订而成。
(10)图西人建立的古代王国,是卢旺达现代国家的前身。
(11)Timothy Longman and Théoneste Rutagengwa, “ Memory, Identity, and Community in Rwanda”, in Eric Stover and Harvey Weinstein (eds.), My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice and Community in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p.165.
(12)Paul Kagame, speech delivered at the “Evaluation Day of National Unity and Reconciliation(Kibuye, Rwanda, 23 November 2001)”, in Rwandan National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, Report on the Evaluation of National Unity and Reconciliation, 2002, p.6.
(13)Ingelaere Bert, “Do We Understand Life After Genocide? Centre and Periphery in the Knowledge Construction in/on Rwanda”, Institute of Development Policy and Management(University of Antwerp) Working Paper, no.2, 2009, p.14.
(14)《卢旺达宪法》(2003年):The Constitution of The Republic of Rwanda, 2003. 下载网址为:http://www.rwandahope.com/constitution.pdf
(15)Beth Lewis Samuelson and Sarah Warshauer Freedman, “Language Policy, Multilingual Education, and Power in Rwanda”, Language Policy, vol.9, 2010, p.198.
(16)Chi Mgbako, “Ingando Solidarity Camps: Reconciliation and Political Indoctrination in Post-Genocide Rwanda”, Harvard Human Rights Journal, vol.18, 2005, p.204.
(17)“Rwandpedia”是卢旺达一家搜集、整理数字资料和档案的网站,上述数据来自该网站:http://www.rwandapedia.rw/explore/ingando
(18)Chi Mgbako, “Ingando Solidarity Camps: Reconciliation and Political Indoctrination in Post-Genocide Rwanda”, p. 218.
(19)Alphonse Bakusi, “National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, Republic of Rwanda” (speech given at a monthly meeting of the “Coexistence Network,” entitled “Les Premiers Indicateurs de Coexistence Pacifique et de CohéSionsociale sur les Collines après la libéRation Provisoire des Présumés Génocidaires,” Kigali, Rwanda, 26 June 2003). 转引自Radha Webley,Report on Rwanda, University of California at Berkeley War Crimes Studies Center, p.41. 该文下载的网址为:https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/～changmin/Papers/webley-thesis.pdf
(20)Rwandan National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, “Rwanda Reconciliation Barometer”, 2015, pp.34-48.
(21)姚新勇:《国家、资源、竞争与族群冲突》,载《读书》,2009年第10期。
(22)[加]威尔·金里卡,刘曙辉译:《多民族国家中的认同政治》,载《马克思主义与现实》,2010年第2期。
(23)Guilherme Simoes Reis, “The Political-Ideological Path of Frelimo in Mozambique, from 1962 to 2012”, The XXIInd World Congress of Political Science 8-12, July, 2012, p.3.
(24)Azinna Nwafor, “FRELIMO and Socialism in Mozambique”, Contemporary Marxism, no.7, 1983, p.39.
(25)[加]威尔·金里卡著,刘曙辉译:《多民族国家中的认同政治》,载《马克思主义与现实》,2010年第2期。
(26)张静主编:《身份认同研究:观念、态度、理据》,上海人民出版社,2006年,第3页。
(27)李建华:《从身份政治到公民政治·中国农民工市民化及其权益保障序》,载《书屋》,2010年第9期。
(28)Helen Hintjens, “Post-genocide Identity Politics in Rwanda”, Ethnicities,vol.8(1), 2008, p.14.
(29)Susan M.Thomson, “Resisting Reconciliation: State Power and Everyday Life in Post-Genocide Rwanda”, p.174.
(30)Sigrun Marie Moss, “Beyond Conflict and Spoilt Identities: How Rwandan Leaders Justify a Single Recategorization Model for Post-Conflict Reconciliation”, Journal of Social and Political Psychology, vol. 2(1), 2014.
(31)Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda, Princeton University Press, 2002, p.5.
(32)Helen Hintjens, “Post-genocide Identity Politics in Rwanda”, p.22.
(33)Nigel Eltringham, Accounting For Horror:Post-Genocide Debates in Rwanda, Pluto Press, 2004, p.70.
(34)Radha Webley,“Report on Rwanda”, p.28.
(35)Kristin C.Doughty, “Contesting Community: Legalized Reconciliation Efforts in The Aftermath of Genocide in Rwanda”, Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at University of Pennsylvania, 2011, p.17.
(36)Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda, p.271.
(37)Beth Lewis Samuelson and Sarah Warshauer Freedman, “Language Policy, Multilingual Education, and Power in Rwanda”,p.202.
(38)Joseph Assan and Lawrence Walker, “The Political Economy of Contemporary Education and the Challenges of Switching Formal Language to English in Rwanda”, In Maddalena Campioniand Patrick Noack(eds.), Rwanda Fast Forward: Social, Economic, Military and Reconciliation Prospects, Palgrave Macmillan, 2012, p.185.
(39)何俊芳、周庆生编著:《语言冲突研究·前言》,中央民族大学出版社,2010年,第3页。
(40)Tope Omoniyi, “Local Policies and Global Forces: Multiliteracy and Africa’s Indigenous Languages”, Language Policy, vol.2, 2003, p.147.
(41)Eddie Williams, “Language Policy,Politics and Development in Africa”, In Hywel Coleman (ed.) Dreams and Realities: Developing Countries and the English Language, British Council, 2011, p.44.
(42)[英]斯图亚特·霍尔、保罗·杜盖伊著,庞璃译:《文化身份问题研究》,河南大学出版社,2010年,第3页。
(43)吕春颖:《异质性哲学视野中的现代身份政治——以阿伦特和伯林对犹太复国主义的分歧为例》,载《求是学刊》,2013年第4期。