新生儿情绪性语音加工的正性偏向——来自事件相关电位的证据
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摘要
准确解码语音中的情绪信息能让个体更好地适应社会环境,此能力对新生儿和婴儿尤其重要,因为人类刚出生时听觉系统远比视觉系统发育得完善。虽然已有研究表明5～7月龄的婴儿能分辨不同情绪种类的语音,但目前对新生儿的研究还非常少。人类是否在出生时即具有分辨不同种类情绪性语音的能力?新生儿对情绪的加工是否存在正性或负性偏向?本文选用odd-ball范式考察高兴、恐惧、愤怒三种韵律性语音在1～6天龄新生儿大脑中诱发的事件相关电位。实验1直接对比三种情绪性条件,发现新生儿大脑的额区(F3和F4电极点)可以区分情绪性语音的正负性,正性(高兴)语音诱发的"失匹配反应"幅度明显大于负性(愤怒和恐惧)语音。实验2采用偏差和标准刺激反转的odd-ball范式,证实了实验1的结果并非源于三种情绪语音物理属性的差异。本文的结果提示,新生儿大脑可自动辨别正性与负性情绪语音,但尚不能将愤怒和恐惧两种负性语音区分开来。更重要的是,高兴语音比两种负性语音诱发了更大的失匹配反应,这一结果首次从神经学层面(电生理指标)为新生儿情绪性语音加工的正性偏向提供了证据。
Our ability to process emotional prosody, that is the emotional tone of a speaker, is fundamental to human communication and adaptive behaviours. Very early in development, vocal emotional cues are more critical than facial expressions in guiding infants' behavior. However, the processing of emotional prosody in the very early days of life is still far from clearly understood. It is unclear whether the discrimination between prosodies with different emotional categories is present at birth. Furthermore, it is unknown whether there is a preferential orientation(negativity bias versus positivity preference) in neonates.Here, we used event-related potentials(ERPs) to examine the ability of neonates(from 1 to 6 days old) to discriminate different types of emotions conveyed by speech prosody. The experiment was conducted in the neonatal ward of Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China. Electroencephalogram recording was carried out when the infants were in a state of active sleep. Using an oddball paradigm, the current study investigated the neural correlates underlying automatic processing of emotional voices of happiness, fear and anger in 18(Experiment 1) and 29(Experiment 2) sleeping neonates. In Experiment 1, each category of emotional prosody(20%) was separately mixed into emotionally neutral prosody(80%), forming three blocks with different emotions. In Experiment 2, we not only repeated the procedure of Experiment 1, but also reversed the standard and deviation stimuli in the odd-ball task.Event-related potential data showed that the frontal scalp distribution(F3 and F4) of the neonatal brain could discriminate happy voices from both angry and fearful voices; the mismatch response(MMR) was larger in response to the deviant stimuli of happiness, compared with the deviant stimuli of anger and fear. However,the latter two stimuli, i.e., angry and fearful voices could not be differentiated. The MMR amplitudes at the other four electrodes, i.e., C3, C4, P3, and P4 did not show significant differences across emotional conditions. Note:the MMR is a prototype of the mismatch negativity, i.e. a preattentive component of the auditory ERP that shows a positive(MMR) or negative(MMN) displacement in response to deviant sounds compared to standard sounds in the oddball paradigm.The neural responses recorded here indicate very early preference for positive over negative stimuli, which is contrary to the ‘negativity bias' phenomenon established in the affective prosody literature of adult and infant studies. It is suggest that the range-frequency hypothesis could help to interpret the transformation from the‘positivity preference' during the first half year of life to the ‘negativity bias' later in development. The present finding provides the first neuroelectrophysiological evidence for the hypothesis of positivity preference in neonatal participants. In addition, this special discrimination between positive and negative prosody in early life may provide a foundation for later emotion and social cognition development.
Our ability to process emotional prosody, that is the emotional tone of a speaker, is fundamental to human communication and adaptive behaviours. Very early in development, vocal emotional cues are more critical than facial expressions in guiding infants' behavior. However, the processing of emotional prosody in the very early days of life is still far from clearly understood. It is unclear whether the discrimination between prosodies with different emotional categories is present at birth. Furthermore, it is unknown whether there is a preferential orientation(negativity bias versus positivity preference) in neonates.Here, we used event-related potentials(ERPs) to examine the ability of neonates(from 1 to 6 days old) to discriminate different types of emotions conveyed by speech prosody. The experiment was conducted in the neonatal ward of Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China. Electroencephalogram recording was carried out when the infants were in a state of active sleep. Using an oddball paradigm, the current study investigated the neural correlates underlying automatic processing of emotional voices of happiness, fear and anger in 18(Experiment 1) and 29(Experiment 2) sleeping neonates. In Experiment 1, each category of emotional prosody(20%) was separately mixed into emotionally neutral prosody(80%), forming three blocks with different emotions. In Experiment 2, we not only repeated the procedure of Experiment 1, but also reversed the standard and deviation stimuli in the odd-ball task.Event-related potential data showed that the frontal scalp distribution(F3 and F4) of the neonatal brain could discriminate happy voices from both angry and fearful voices; the mismatch response(MMR) was larger in response to the deviant stimuli of happiness, compared with the deviant stimuli of anger and fear. However,the latter two stimuli, i.e., angry and fearful voices could not be differentiated. The MMR amplitudes at the other four electrodes, i.e., C3, C4, P3, and P4 did not show significant differences across emotional conditions. Note:the MMR is a prototype of the mismatch negativity, i.e. a preattentive component of the auditory ERP that shows a positive(MMR) or negative(MMN) displacement in response to deviant sounds compared to standard sounds in the oddball paradigm.The neural responses recorded here indicate very early preference for positive over negative stimuli, which is contrary to the ‘negativity bias' phenomenon established in the affective prosody literature of adult and infant studies. It is suggest that the range-frequency hypothesis could help to interpret the transformation from the‘positivity preference' during the first half year of life to the ‘negativity bias' later in development. The present finding provides the first neuroelectrophysiological evidence for the hypothesis of positivity preference in neonatal participants. In addition, this special discrimination between positive and negative prosody in early life may provide a foundation for later emotion and social cognition development.
引文
Arimitsu,T.,Uchida-Ota,M.,Yagihashi,T.,Kojima,S.,Watanabe,S.,Hokuto,I.,…Minagawa-Kawai,Y.(2011).Functional hemispheric specialization in processing phonemic and prosodic auditory changes in neonates.Frontiers in Psychology,2,202.
Belin,P.,Fecteau,S.,&Bédard,C.(2004).Thinking the voice:Neural correlates of voice perception.Trends in Cognitive Sciences,8(3),129-135.
Belin,P.,Zatorre,R.J.,Lafaille,P.,Ahad,P.,&Pike,B.(2000).Voice-selective areas in human auditory cortex.Nature,403(6767),309-312.
Brük,C.,Kreifelts,B.,&Wildgruber,D.(2011).Emotional voices in context:A neurobiologicalmodel of multimodal affective information processing.Physics of Life Reviews,8(4),383-403.
Cheng,Y.W.,Lee,S.Y.,Chen,H.Y.,Wang,P.Y.,&Decety,J.(2012).Voice and emotion processing in the human neonatal brain.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,24(6),1411-1419.
Cooper,R.P.,&Aslin,R.N.(1990).Preference for infant-directed speech in the first month after birth.Child Development,61(5),1584-1595.
DeCasper,A.J.,&Fifer,W.P.(1980).Of human bonding:Newborns prefer their mothers'voices.Science,208(4448),1174-1176.
Decety,J.,&Howard,L.H.(2013).The role of affect in the neurodevelopment of morality.Child Development Perspectives,7(1),49-54.
Dehaene-Lambertz,G.(2000).Cerebral specialization for speech and non-speech stimuli in infants.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,12(3),449-460.
Ethofer,T.,Bretscher,J.,Gschwind,M.,Kreifelts,B.,Wildgruber,D.,&Vuilleumier,P.(2012).Emotional voice areas:Anatomic location,functional properties,and structural connections revealed by combined fMRI/DTI.Cerebral Cortex,22(1),191-200
Fan,Y.T.,Hsu,Y.Y.,&Cheng,Y.W.(2013).Sex matters:nback modulates emotional mismatch negativity.NeuroReport,24(9),457-463.
Farroni,T.,Menon,E.,Rigato,S.,&Johnson,M.H.(2007).The perception of facial expressions in newborns.European Journal of Developmental Psychology,4(1),2-13.
Fernald,A.(1993).Approval and disapproval:Infant responsiveness to vocal affect in familiar and unfamiliar languages.Child Development,64(3),657-674.
Ferrari,V.,Bradley,M.M.,Codispoti,M.,&Lang,P.J.(2010).Detecting novelty and significance.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,22(2),404-411.
Flom,R.,&Bahrick,L.E.(2007).The development of infant discrimination of affect in multimodal and unimodal stimulation:The role of intersensory redundancy.Developmental Psychology,43(1),238-252.
Flom,R.,&Pick,A.D.(2012).Dynamics of infant habituation:Infants’discrimination of musical excerpts.Infant Behavior and Development,35(4),697-704.
Friederici,A.D.,Friedrich,M.,&Weber,C.(2002).Neural manifestation of cognitive and precognitive mismatch detection in early infancy.NeuroReport,13(10),1251-1254.
Frühholz S.,&Grandjean D.(2013).Processing of emotional vocalizations in bilateral inferior frontal cortex.Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,37(10),2847-2855.
Grossmann,T.(2010).The development of emotion perception in face and voice during infancy.Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience,28(2),219-236.
Grossmann T.,Striano T.,&Friederici A.D.(2005).Infants'electric brain responses to emotional prosody.NeuroReport,16(16),1825-1828.
Grossmann,T.,Oberecker,R.,Koch,S.P.,&Friederici,A.D.(2010).The developmental origins of voice processing in the human brain.Neuron,65(6),852-858.
Háden,G.P.,Stefanics,G.,Vestergaard,M.D.,Denham,S.L.,Sziller,I.,&Winkler,I.(2009).Timbre-independent extraction of pitch in newborn infants.Psychophysiology,46(1),69-74.
Hawk,S.T.,Van Kleef,G.A.,Fischer,A.H.,&Van Der Schalk,J.(2009)."Worth a thousand words":Absolute and relative decoding of nonlinguistic affect vocalizations.Emotion,9(3),293-305.
Hirasawa,K.,Kurihara,M.,&Konishi,Y.(2002).The relationship between mismatch negativity and arousal level.Can mismatch negativity be an index for evaluating the arousal level in infants?Sleep Medicine,3(S2),S45-S48.
Hoehl,S.,&Striano,T.(2010).The development of emotional face and eye gaze processing.Developmental Science,13(6),813-825.
Hung,A.Y.,Ahveninen,J.,&Cheng,Y.(2013).Atypical mismatch negativity to distressful voices associated with conduct disorder symptoms.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,54(9),1016-1027.
Ito,T.A.,Larsen,J.T.,Smith,N.K.&,Cacioppo,J.T.(1998).Negative information weighs more heavily on the brain:The negativity bias in evaluative categorizations.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,75(4),887-900.
LaBarbera,J.D.,Izard,C.E.,Vietze,P.,&Parisi,S.A.(1976).Four-and six-month-old infants’visual response to joy,anger and neutral expressions.Child Development,47(2),535-538.
Lepp?nen,P.H.T.,Guttorm,T.K.,Pihko,E.,Takkinen,S.,Eklund,K.M.,&Lyytinen,H.(2004).Maturational effects on newborn ERPs measured in the mismatch negativity paradigm.Experimental Neurology,190(S1),S91-S101.
Mastropieri,D.,&Turkewitz,G.(1999).Prenatal experience and neonatal responsiveness to vocal expressions of emotion.Developmental Psychobiology,35(3),204-214.
N??t?nen,R.,Paavilainen,P.,Rinne,T.,&Alho,K.(2007).The mismatch negativity(MMN)in basic research of central auditory processing:A review.Clinical Neurophysiology,118(12),2544-2590.
Parducci,G.(1995).Happiness,pleasure,and judgment:The contextual theory and its applications.Hillsdale,NJ,US:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Inc..
Peltola,M.J.,Lepp?nen,J.M.,M?ki,S.,&Hietanen,J.K.(2009).Emergence of enhanced attention to fearful faces between 5 and 7 months of age.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,4(2),134-142.
Rigato,S.,Farroni,T.&Johnson,M.H.(2010).The shared signal hypothesis and neural responses to expressions and gaze in infants and adults.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,5(1),88-97.
Ruusuvirta,T.,Huotilainen,M.,Fellman,V.,&N??t?nen,R.(2009).Numerical discrimination in newborn infants as revealed by event-related potentials to tone sequences.European Journal of Neuroscience,30(8),1620-1624.
Singh,L.,Morgan,J.L.,&Best,C.T.(2002).Infants'listening preferences:Baby talk or happy talk?Infancy,3(3),365-394.
Saito,Y.,Aoyama,S.,Kondo,T.,Fukumoto,R.,Konishi,N.,Nakamura,K.,…Toshima,T.(2007).Frontal cerebral blood flow change associated with infant-directed speech.Archives of Disease in Childhood.Fetal and Neonatal Edition,92(2),F113-F116.
Saito,Y.,Fukuhara,R.,Aoyama,S.,&Toshima,T.(2009).Frontal brain activation in premature infants'response to auditory stimuli in neonatal intensive care unit.Early Human Development,85(7),471-474.
Telkemeyer,S.,Rossi,S.,Koch,S.P.,Nierhaus,T.,Steinbrink,J.,Poeppel,D.,…Wartenburger,l.(2009).Wartenburger,Sensitivity of newborn auditory cortex to the temporal structure of sounds.Journal of Neuroscience,29(47),14726-14733.
Vaish,A.,Grossmann,T.,&Woodward,A.(2008).Not all emotions are created equal:The negativity bias in socialemotional development.Psychological Bulletin,134(3),383-403.
Vaish,A.,&Striano,T.(2004).Is visual reference necessary?Contributions of facial versus vocal cues in 12-month-olds’social referencing behavior.Developmental Science,7(3),261-269.
Winkler,I.,Kushnerenko,E.,Horváth,J.,?eponien?,R.,Fellman,V.,Huotilainen,M.,…Sussman,E.(2003).Newborn infants can organize the auditory world.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,100(20),11812-11815.
Zhang,D.D.,Liu,Y.Z.,Hou,X.L.,Sun,G.Y.,Cheng,Y.W.,&Luo,Y.J.(2014).Discrimination of fearful and angry emotional voices in sleeping human neonates:A study of the mismatch brain responses.Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience,8,422.
Zhang,D.D.,Liu,Y.F.,Hou,X.L.,Zhou,C.L,Luo,Y.J.,Ye,D.T.,&Ding.H.Y.(2011).Reference values for amplitude-integrated EEGs in infants from preterm to 3.5months of age.Pediatrics,127(5),e1280-e1287.
Belin,P.,Fecteau,S.,&Bédard,C.(2004).Thinking the voice:Neural correlates of voice perception.Trends in Cognitive Sciences,8(3),129-135.
Belin,P.,Zatorre,R.J.,Lafaille,P.,Ahad,P.,&Pike,B.(2000).Voice-selective areas in human auditory cortex.Nature,403(6767),309-312.
Brük,C.,Kreifelts,B.,&Wildgruber,D.(2011).Emotional voices in context:A neurobiologicalmodel of multimodal affective information processing.Physics of Life Reviews,8(4),383-403.
Cheng,Y.W.,Lee,S.Y.,Chen,H.Y.,Wang,P.Y.,&Decety,J.(2012).Voice and emotion processing in the human neonatal brain.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,24(6),1411-1419.
Cooper,R.P.,&Aslin,R.N.(1990).Preference for infant-directed speech in the first month after birth.Child Development,61(5),1584-1595.
DeCasper,A.J.,&Fifer,W.P.(1980).Of human bonding:Newborns prefer their mothers'voices.Science,208(4448),1174-1176.
Decety,J.,&Howard,L.H.(2013).The role of affect in the neurodevelopment of morality.Child Development Perspectives,7(1),49-54.
Dehaene-Lambertz,G.(2000).Cerebral specialization for speech and non-speech stimuli in infants.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,12(3),449-460.
Ethofer,T.,Bretscher,J.,Gschwind,M.,Kreifelts,B.,Wildgruber,D.,&Vuilleumier,P.(2012).Emotional voice areas:Anatomic location,functional properties,and structural connections revealed by combined fMRI/DTI.Cerebral Cortex,22(1),191-200
Fan,Y.T.,Hsu,Y.Y.,&Cheng,Y.W.(2013).Sex matters:nback modulates emotional mismatch negativity.NeuroReport,24(9),457-463.
Farroni,T.,Menon,E.,Rigato,S.,&Johnson,M.H.(2007).The perception of facial expressions in newborns.European Journal of Developmental Psychology,4(1),2-13.
Fernald,A.(1993).Approval and disapproval:Infant responsiveness to vocal affect in familiar and unfamiliar languages.Child Development,64(3),657-674.
Ferrari,V.,Bradley,M.M.,Codispoti,M.,&Lang,P.J.(2010).Detecting novelty and significance.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,22(2),404-411.
Flom,R.,&Bahrick,L.E.(2007).The development of infant discrimination of affect in multimodal and unimodal stimulation:The role of intersensory redundancy.Developmental Psychology,43(1),238-252.
Flom,R.,&Pick,A.D.(2012).Dynamics of infant habituation:Infants’discrimination of musical excerpts.Infant Behavior and Development,35(4),697-704.
Friederici,A.D.,Friedrich,M.,&Weber,C.(2002).Neural manifestation of cognitive and precognitive mismatch detection in early infancy.NeuroReport,13(10),1251-1254.
Frühholz S.,&Grandjean D.(2013).Processing of emotional vocalizations in bilateral inferior frontal cortex.Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,37(10),2847-2855.
Grossmann,T.(2010).The development of emotion perception in face and voice during infancy.Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience,28(2),219-236.
Grossmann T.,Striano T.,&Friederici A.D.(2005).Infants'electric brain responses to emotional prosody.NeuroReport,16(16),1825-1828.
Grossmann,T.,Oberecker,R.,Koch,S.P.,&Friederici,A.D.(2010).The developmental origins of voice processing in the human brain.Neuron,65(6),852-858.
Háden,G.P.,Stefanics,G.,Vestergaard,M.D.,Denham,S.L.,Sziller,I.,&Winkler,I.(2009).Timbre-independent extraction of pitch in newborn infants.Psychophysiology,46(1),69-74.
Hawk,S.T.,Van Kleef,G.A.,Fischer,A.H.,&Van Der Schalk,J.(2009)."Worth a thousand words":Absolute and relative decoding of nonlinguistic affect vocalizations.Emotion,9(3),293-305.
Hirasawa,K.,Kurihara,M.,&Konishi,Y.(2002).The relationship between mismatch negativity and arousal level.Can mismatch negativity be an index for evaluating the arousal level in infants?Sleep Medicine,3(S2),S45-S48.
Hoehl,S.,&Striano,T.(2010).The development of emotional face and eye gaze processing.Developmental Science,13(6),813-825.
Hung,A.Y.,Ahveninen,J.,&Cheng,Y.(2013).Atypical mismatch negativity to distressful voices associated with conduct disorder symptoms.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,54(9),1016-1027.
Ito,T.A.,Larsen,J.T.,Smith,N.K.&,Cacioppo,J.T.(1998).Negative information weighs more heavily on the brain:The negativity bias in evaluative categorizations.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,75(4),887-900.
LaBarbera,J.D.,Izard,C.E.,Vietze,P.,&Parisi,S.A.(1976).Four-and six-month-old infants’visual response to joy,anger and neutral expressions.Child Development,47(2),535-538.
Lepp?nen,P.H.T.,Guttorm,T.K.,Pihko,E.,Takkinen,S.,Eklund,K.M.,&Lyytinen,H.(2004).Maturational effects on newborn ERPs measured in the mismatch negativity paradigm.Experimental Neurology,190(S1),S91-S101.
Mastropieri,D.,&Turkewitz,G.(1999).Prenatal experience and neonatal responsiveness to vocal expressions of emotion.Developmental Psychobiology,35(3),204-214.
N??t?nen,R.,Paavilainen,P.,Rinne,T.,&Alho,K.(2007).The mismatch negativity(MMN)in basic research of central auditory processing:A review.Clinical Neurophysiology,118(12),2544-2590.
Parducci,G.(1995).Happiness,pleasure,and judgment:The contextual theory and its applications.Hillsdale,NJ,US:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Inc..
Peltola,M.J.,Lepp?nen,J.M.,M?ki,S.,&Hietanen,J.K.(2009).Emergence of enhanced attention to fearful faces between 5 and 7 months of age.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,4(2),134-142.
Rigato,S.,Farroni,T.&Johnson,M.H.(2010).The shared signal hypothesis and neural responses to expressions and gaze in infants and adults.Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,5(1),88-97.
Ruusuvirta,T.,Huotilainen,M.,Fellman,V.,&N??t?nen,R.(2009).Numerical discrimination in newborn infants as revealed by event-related potentials to tone sequences.European Journal of Neuroscience,30(8),1620-1624.
Singh,L.,Morgan,J.L.,&Best,C.T.(2002).Infants'listening preferences:Baby talk or happy talk?Infancy,3(3),365-394.
Saito,Y.,Aoyama,S.,Kondo,T.,Fukumoto,R.,Konishi,N.,Nakamura,K.,…Toshima,T.(2007).Frontal cerebral blood flow change associated with infant-directed speech.Archives of Disease in Childhood.Fetal and Neonatal Edition,92(2),F113-F116.
Saito,Y.,Fukuhara,R.,Aoyama,S.,&Toshima,T.(2009).Frontal brain activation in premature infants'response to auditory stimuli in neonatal intensive care unit.Early Human Development,85(7),471-474.
Telkemeyer,S.,Rossi,S.,Koch,S.P.,Nierhaus,T.,Steinbrink,J.,Poeppel,D.,…Wartenburger,l.(2009).Wartenburger,Sensitivity of newborn auditory cortex to the temporal structure of sounds.Journal of Neuroscience,29(47),14726-14733.
Vaish,A.,Grossmann,T.,&Woodward,A.(2008).Not all emotions are created equal:The negativity bias in socialemotional development.Psychological Bulletin,134(3),383-403.
Vaish,A.,&Striano,T.(2004).Is visual reference necessary?Contributions of facial versus vocal cues in 12-month-olds’social referencing behavior.Developmental Science,7(3),261-269.
Winkler,I.,Kushnerenko,E.,Horváth,J.,?eponien?,R.,Fellman,V.,Huotilainen,M.,…Sussman,E.(2003).Newborn infants can organize the auditory world.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,100(20),11812-11815.
Zhang,D.D.,Liu,Y.Z.,Hou,X.L.,Sun,G.Y.,Cheng,Y.W.,&Luo,Y.J.(2014).Discrimination of fearful and angry emotional voices in sleeping human neonates:A study of the mismatch brain responses.Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience,8,422.
Zhang,D.D.,Liu,Y.F.,Hou,X.L.,Zhou,C.L,Luo,Y.J.,Ye,D.T.,&Ding.H.Y.(2011).Reference values for amplitude-integrated EEGs in infants from preterm to 3.5months of age.Pediatrics,127(5),e1280-e1287.