性别观念、性别情境与两性的工作—家庭冲突——来自跨国数据的经验证据
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摘要
本文利用国际社会调查项目数据库检验了包括中国在内的39个国家/地区中已婚在业男性与女性在工作—家庭冲突上的差异。研究发现,就各国/地区的平均水平而言,在同等条件下,女性比男性面临的工作—家庭冲突程度更高。与他国相比,中国男性和女性的工作—家庭冲突居于中等水平,但存在显著的性别差异:中国女性比男性感受到更多家庭对工作的干扰,而男性比女性感受到更多工作对家庭的干扰。工作特征和家庭特征会影响劳动者的工作—家庭冲突;在家庭对工作的干扰上,工作时间、抚育责任和家务分工对女性的影响超过男性。平等的性别观念会降低劳动者的工作—家庭冲突,且对女性的积极作用大于男性。在国别/地区差异上,性别观念的转变对降低中国女性的工作—家庭冲突相对有限,而减少工作时间、改善家务分工对降低中国女性的工作—家庭冲突帮助较大。国家/地区的性别平等环境也有助于降低两性的工作—家庭冲突。公共领域性别越平等的国家/地区,男性和女性的工作—家庭冲突均较低,不过并不会出现两性差异的缩小,因为在这些国家/地区男性从性别平等的环境中获益更多。
Using data from the International Social Survey Programme,this study examines the gender difference in the level of work-family conflict among married/cohabited working population across 39 countries/regions. It finds that women in general have a higher level of work-family conflict than men. Compared with other countries,the level of work-family conflict in China is in the middle but with significant gender gap. That is,men in China perceive more work interfering family,while women perceive more family interfering work.Work and family characteristics are found to be associated with perception of work-family conflict. Working hours,childcare,and household labor division particularly have stronger effects on women's perception of work-family conflict than on men's. Egalitarian gender ideology also reduces work-family conflict and its effect is stronger for women than for men. Nevertheless,egalitarian gender ideology contributes relatively smaller effects on work-family conflict in China than in many other countries,while reducing working hours and improving the equality of household labor division seem to be more helpful to reduce Chinese men and women's work-family conflict. Countries/regions with egalitarian gender context have lower levels of work-family conflict than those with traditional gender context. The gender gap in work-family conflict,however,is larger in gender-egalitarian countries/regions,probably because men in these countries/regions benefit more than women from gender equality.
Using data from the International Social Survey Programme,this study examines the gender difference in the level of work-family conflict among married/cohabited working population across 39 countries/regions. It finds that women in general have a higher level of work-family conflict than men. Compared with other countries,the level of work-family conflict in China is in the middle but with significant gender gap. That is,men in China perceive more work interfering family,while women perceive more family interfering work.Work and family characteristics are found to be associated with perception of work-family conflict. Working hours,childcare,and household labor division particularly have stronger effects on women's perception of work-family conflict than on men's. Egalitarian gender ideology also reduces work-family conflict and its effect is stronger for women than for men. Nevertheless,egalitarian gender ideology contributes relatively smaller effects on work-family conflict in China than in many other countries,while reducing working hours and improving the equality of household labor division seem to be more helpful to reduce Chinese men and women's work-family conflict. Countries/regions with egalitarian gender context have lower levels of work-family conflict than those with traditional gender context. The gender gap in work-family conflict,however,is larger in gender-egalitarian countries/regions,probably because men in these countries/regions benefit more than women from gender equality.
引文
[1]Greenhaus,J. H.,Beutell,N. J.. Sources of Conflict between Work and Family Roles[J]. Academy of Management Review,1985,10(1).
[2]Frone,M. R.,Russell,M.,Cooper,M. L.. Antecedents and Outcomes of Work-Family Conflict:Testing a Model of the Work-Family Interface[J]. Journal of Applied Psychology,1992,77(1).
[3]Higgins,C. A.,Duxbury,L. E.,Irving,R. H.. Work-Family Conflict in the Dual-Career Family[J]. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,1992,51(1).
[4]Powell,G. N.,Francesco,A. M.,Yan,L.. Toward Culture-Sensitive Theories of the Work-Family Interface[J]. Journal of Organizational Behavior,2009,30(5).
[5]杨菊华.健全托幼服务推动女性工作与家庭平衡[J].妇女研究论丛,2016,(2).
[6]Ji,Y.,Wu,X.,Sun,S.,He,G.. Unequal Care,Unequal Work:Toward a more Comprehensive Understanding of Gender Inequality in Post-Reform Urban China[J]. Sex Roles,2017,77(11-12).
[7]Parasuraman,S.,Simmers,C. A.. Type of Employment,Work-Family Conflict and Well-Being:A Comparative Study[J]. Journal of Organizational Behavior,2001,22(5).
[8]Annink,A.,den Dulk,L.,Steijn B.. Work-Family Conflict Among Employees and the Self-Employed across Europe[J]. Social Indicators Research,2016,126(2).
[9]Shockley,K. M.,Allen,T. D.. When Flexibility Helps:Another Look at the Availability of Flexible Work Arrangements and WorkFamily Conflict[J]. Journal of Vocational Behavior,2007,71(3).
[10]Stier,H.,Lewin-Epstein,N.,Braun,M.. Work-Family Conflict in Comparative Perspective:The Role of Social Policies[J]. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility,2012,30(3).
[11]Ruppanner,L.. Conflict between Work and Family:An Investigation of Four Policy Measures[J]. Social Indicators Research,2013,10(1).
[12]Eddleston,K. A.,Powell,G. N.. Nurturing Entrepreneurs'Work-Family Balance:A Gendered Perspective[J]. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,2012,36(3).
[13]Allen,T. D.,Johnson,R. C.,Saboe,K. N.,Cho,E.,Dumani,S.,Evans,S.. Dispositional Variables and Work-Family Conflict:A MetaAnalysis[J]. Journal of Vocational Behavior,2012,80(1).
[14]Yang,N.,Chen,C. C.,Choi,J.,Zou,Y.. Sources of Work-Family Conflict:A Sino-U. S. Comparison of the Effects of Work and Family Demands[J]. Academy of Management Journal,2000,43(1).
[15]Rajadhyaksha,U.,Korabik,K.,Aycan,Z.. Gender,Gender-Role Ideology,and the Work-Family Interface:A Cross-Cultural Analysis[A]. Mills,M. J.(editor). Gender and the Work-Family Experience[G]. Switzerland:Springer International Publishing,2015.
[16]王天阳,康平,王瑶.高校教师工作家庭冲突与职业倦怠的关系研究———以河南大学为例[J].集美大学学报,2010,11(2).
[17]孙桂苓.高中教师工作家庭冲突与工作满意度关系研究[D].曲阜师范大学硕士学位论文,2009.
[18]贾文华.农村中学教师工作—家庭冲突的影响因素分析[J].商丘职业技术学院学报,2012,11(1).
[19]张何苗.高中教师工作家庭冲突的影响因素研究[D].首都师范大学硕士学位论文,2007.
[20]魏玲.医生工作家庭冲突的性别差异及其相关因素调查[J].福建医科大学学报(社会科学版),2012,13(2).
[21]房颖.企业中层管理者的工作家庭冲突与工作满意度的关系研究[D].西北大学硕士学位论文,2010.
[22]王华锋,贾生华,李生校.性别与工作—家庭冲突的中介效应研究[J].心理科学,2009,(5).
[23]姜佳将.工作—家庭平衡状况的性别差异及影响因素研究[J].浙江学刊,2015,(3).
[24]佟新,周旅军.就业与家庭照顾间的平衡:基于性别与职业位置的比较[J].学海,2013,(2).
[25]Pleck,J. H.. The Work-Family Role System[J]. Social Problems,1977,24(4).
[26]Shaffer,M. A.,Joplin,J.,Hsu,Y.. Expanding the Boundaries of Work-Family Research:Review and Agenda for Future Research[J]. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management,2011,11.
[27]Shockley,K. M.,Shen,W.,De Nunzio,M. M.,Arvan,M. L.. Disentangling the Relationship between Gender and Work-Family Conflict:An Integration of Theoretical Perspectives Using Meta-Analytic Methods[J]. Journal of Applied Psychology,2017,102(12).
[28]Byron,K.. A Meta-Analytic Review of Work-Family Conflict and its Antecedents[J]. Journal of Vocational Behavior,2005,67.
[29]Hochschild,A.,Machung,A.. The Second Shift[M]. New York:Penguin Books,2003.
[30]Davis,S. N.. Support,Demands,and Gender Ideology:Exploring Work-Family Facilitation and Work-Family Conflict among Older Workers[J]. Marriage&Family Review,2011,47(6).
[31]Rajadhyaksha,U.,Velgach,S.. What Is a Better Predictor of Work-Family Conflict in India?-Gender or Gender Role Ideology[A].Mkel,L.,Suutari,V.(editors). Work and Personal Life Interface in the International Career Context[G]. Switzerland:Springer International Publishing,2015.
[32]Grnlund,A.. More Control,Less Conflict? Job Demand-Control,Gender and Work-Family Conflict[J]. Gender Work&Organization,2007,14(5).
[33]Lunau,T.,Bambra,C.,Eikemo,T. A.,van der Wel,K. A.,Dragano,N.. A Balancing Act? Work-Life Balance,Health and Well-Being in European Welfare States[J]. The European Journal of Public Health,2014,24(3).
[34]Notten,N.,Grunow,D.,Verbakel,E.. Social Policies and Families in Stress:Gender and Educational Differences in Work-Family Conflict from a European Perspective[J]. Social Indicators Research,2017,132(3).
[35]Steiber,N.. Reported Levels of Time-Based and Strain-Based Conflict between Work and Family Roles in Europe:A Multilevel Approach[J]. Social Indicators Research,2009,93(3).
[36]Hagqvist,E.,Gdin,K. G.,Nordenmark,M.. Work-Family Conflict and Well-Being Across Europe:The Role of Gender Context[J].Social Indicators Research,2017,132(2).
[37]Brines,J.. Economic Dependency,Gender,and the Division of Labor at Home[J]. American Journal of Sociology,1994,100(3).
[38]Treas,J.,Tai,T.. Gender Inequality in Housework across 20 European Nations:Lessons from Gender Stratification Theories[J]. Sex Roles,2016,74.
[39]Carlson,D. S.,Kacmar,K. M.,Williams,L. J.. Construction and Initial Validation of a Multidimensional Measure of Work-Family Conflict[J]. Journal of Vocational Behavior,2000,56.
[40]Braun,M.,Lewin-Epstein,N.,Stier,H.,Baumgrtner,M. K.. Perceived Equity in the Gendered Division of Household Labor[J].Journal of Marriage and Family,2008,70(5).
[41]Greenstein,T. N.. National Context,Family Satisfaction,and Fairness in the Division of Household Labor[J]. Journal of Marriage and Family,2009,71(4).
[42]Prottas,D. J.,Thompson,C. A.. Stress,Satisfaction,and the State Work-Family Support Interface:A Comparison of Self-Employed Business Owners,Independents,and Organizational Employees[J]. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,2006,11(4).
(1)关于ISSP的介绍详见项目网站:http://www.issp.org。
(2)欧洲国家包括奥地利、比利时、保加利亚、克罗地亚、捷克、丹麦、芬兰、法国、德国、匈牙利、冰岛、爱尔兰、拉脱维亚、立陶宛、荷兰、挪威、波兰、葡萄牙、俄罗斯、斯洛伐克、斯洛文尼亚、瑞典、瑞士、英国,北美及大洋洲国家包括加拿大、美国、澳大利亚,拉美国家包括阿根廷、智利、墨西哥、委内瑞拉,亚洲国家和地区包括中国、中国台湾、印度、以色列、日本、韩国、菲律宾,非洲国家包括南非。
(3)GII的介绍参见http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/gender-inequality-index-gii。
(4)中国男性每周平均工作时长为53小时(跨国样本男性为47小时);中国女性每周平均工作时长为51小时(跨国样本女性为39小时)。
(5)如斯洛伐克、拉脱维亚。
(6)详见https://stats.oecd.org/。
(7)根据第六次全国人口普查统计,中国女性周均工作时间为43.6小时。
(8)受访者在“在有了孩子以后,您配偶/伴侣的工作状况如何?”题项下选择回答“小孩还没上学的时候出去做全职工作”的比例。
(9)此处的统计包括女性回答自己在“小孩还没上学的时候出去做全职工作”以及男性回答配偶/伴侣在“小孩还没上学的时候出去做全职工作”的比例。中国为52%,仅处在中等偏高水平。
[2]Frone,M. R.,Russell,M.,Cooper,M. L.. Antecedents and Outcomes of Work-Family Conflict:Testing a Model of the Work-Family Interface[J]. Journal of Applied Psychology,1992,77(1).
[3]Higgins,C. A.,Duxbury,L. E.,Irving,R. H.. Work-Family Conflict in the Dual-Career Family[J]. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,1992,51(1).
[4]Powell,G. N.,Francesco,A. M.,Yan,L.. Toward Culture-Sensitive Theories of the Work-Family Interface[J]. Journal of Organizational Behavior,2009,30(5).
[5]杨菊华.健全托幼服务推动女性工作与家庭平衡[J].妇女研究论丛,2016,(2).
[6]Ji,Y.,Wu,X.,Sun,S.,He,G.. Unequal Care,Unequal Work:Toward a more Comprehensive Understanding of Gender Inequality in Post-Reform Urban China[J]. Sex Roles,2017,77(11-12).
[7]Parasuraman,S.,Simmers,C. A.. Type of Employment,Work-Family Conflict and Well-Being:A Comparative Study[J]. Journal of Organizational Behavior,2001,22(5).
[8]Annink,A.,den Dulk,L.,Steijn B.. Work-Family Conflict Among Employees and the Self-Employed across Europe[J]. Social Indicators Research,2016,126(2).
[9]Shockley,K. M.,Allen,T. D.. When Flexibility Helps:Another Look at the Availability of Flexible Work Arrangements and WorkFamily Conflict[J]. Journal of Vocational Behavior,2007,71(3).
[10]Stier,H.,Lewin-Epstein,N.,Braun,M.. Work-Family Conflict in Comparative Perspective:The Role of Social Policies[J]. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility,2012,30(3).
[11]Ruppanner,L.. Conflict between Work and Family:An Investigation of Four Policy Measures[J]. Social Indicators Research,2013,10(1).
[12]Eddleston,K. A.,Powell,G. N.. Nurturing Entrepreneurs'Work-Family Balance:A Gendered Perspective[J]. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,2012,36(3).
[13]Allen,T. D.,Johnson,R. C.,Saboe,K. N.,Cho,E.,Dumani,S.,Evans,S.. Dispositional Variables and Work-Family Conflict:A MetaAnalysis[J]. Journal of Vocational Behavior,2012,80(1).
[14]Yang,N.,Chen,C. C.,Choi,J.,Zou,Y.. Sources of Work-Family Conflict:A Sino-U. S. Comparison of the Effects of Work and Family Demands[J]. Academy of Management Journal,2000,43(1).
[15]Rajadhyaksha,U.,Korabik,K.,Aycan,Z.. Gender,Gender-Role Ideology,and the Work-Family Interface:A Cross-Cultural Analysis[A]. Mills,M. J.(editor). Gender and the Work-Family Experience[G]. Switzerland:Springer International Publishing,2015.
[16]王天阳,康平,王瑶.高校教师工作家庭冲突与职业倦怠的关系研究———以河南大学为例[J].集美大学学报,2010,11(2).
[17]孙桂苓.高中教师工作家庭冲突与工作满意度关系研究[D].曲阜师范大学硕士学位论文,2009.
[18]贾文华.农村中学教师工作—家庭冲突的影响因素分析[J].商丘职业技术学院学报,2012,11(1).
[19]张何苗.高中教师工作家庭冲突的影响因素研究[D].首都师范大学硕士学位论文,2007.
[20]魏玲.医生工作家庭冲突的性别差异及其相关因素调查[J].福建医科大学学报(社会科学版),2012,13(2).
[21]房颖.企业中层管理者的工作家庭冲突与工作满意度的关系研究[D].西北大学硕士学位论文,2010.
[22]王华锋,贾生华,李生校.性别与工作—家庭冲突的中介效应研究[J].心理科学,2009,(5).
[23]姜佳将.工作—家庭平衡状况的性别差异及影响因素研究[J].浙江学刊,2015,(3).
[24]佟新,周旅军.就业与家庭照顾间的平衡:基于性别与职业位置的比较[J].学海,2013,(2).
[25]Pleck,J. H.. The Work-Family Role System[J]. Social Problems,1977,24(4).
[26]Shaffer,M. A.,Joplin,J.,Hsu,Y.. Expanding the Boundaries of Work-Family Research:Review and Agenda for Future Research[J]. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management,2011,11.
[27]Shockley,K. M.,Shen,W.,De Nunzio,M. M.,Arvan,M. L.. Disentangling the Relationship between Gender and Work-Family Conflict:An Integration of Theoretical Perspectives Using Meta-Analytic Methods[J]. Journal of Applied Psychology,2017,102(12).
[28]Byron,K.. A Meta-Analytic Review of Work-Family Conflict and its Antecedents[J]. Journal of Vocational Behavior,2005,67.
[29]Hochschild,A.,Machung,A.. The Second Shift[M]. New York:Penguin Books,2003.
[30]Davis,S. N.. Support,Demands,and Gender Ideology:Exploring Work-Family Facilitation and Work-Family Conflict among Older Workers[J]. Marriage&Family Review,2011,47(6).
[31]Rajadhyaksha,U.,Velgach,S.. What Is a Better Predictor of Work-Family Conflict in India?-Gender or Gender Role Ideology[A].Mkel,L.,Suutari,V.(editors). Work and Personal Life Interface in the International Career Context[G]. Switzerland:Springer International Publishing,2015.
[32]Grnlund,A.. More Control,Less Conflict? Job Demand-Control,Gender and Work-Family Conflict[J]. Gender Work&Organization,2007,14(5).
[33]Lunau,T.,Bambra,C.,Eikemo,T. A.,van der Wel,K. A.,Dragano,N.. A Balancing Act? Work-Life Balance,Health and Well-Being in European Welfare States[J]. The European Journal of Public Health,2014,24(3).
[34]Notten,N.,Grunow,D.,Verbakel,E.. Social Policies and Families in Stress:Gender and Educational Differences in Work-Family Conflict from a European Perspective[J]. Social Indicators Research,2017,132(3).
[35]Steiber,N.. Reported Levels of Time-Based and Strain-Based Conflict between Work and Family Roles in Europe:A Multilevel Approach[J]. Social Indicators Research,2009,93(3).
[36]Hagqvist,E.,Gdin,K. G.,Nordenmark,M.. Work-Family Conflict and Well-Being Across Europe:The Role of Gender Context[J].Social Indicators Research,2017,132(2).
[37]Brines,J.. Economic Dependency,Gender,and the Division of Labor at Home[J]. American Journal of Sociology,1994,100(3).
[38]Treas,J.,Tai,T.. Gender Inequality in Housework across 20 European Nations:Lessons from Gender Stratification Theories[J]. Sex Roles,2016,74.
[39]Carlson,D. S.,Kacmar,K. M.,Williams,L. J.. Construction and Initial Validation of a Multidimensional Measure of Work-Family Conflict[J]. Journal of Vocational Behavior,2000,56.
[40]Braun,M.,Lewin-Epstein,N.,Stier,H.,Baumgrtner,M. K.. Perceived Equity in the Gendered Division of Household Labor[J].Journal of Marriage and Family,2008,70(5).
[41]Greenstein,T. N.. National Context,Family Satisfaction,and Fairness in the Division of Household Labor[J]. Journal of Marriage and Family,2009,71(4).
[42]Prottas,D. J.,Thompson,C. A.. Stress,Satisfaction,and the State Work-Family Support Interface:A Comparison of Self-Employed Business Owners,Independents,and Organizational Employees[J]. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,2006,11(4).
(1)关于ISSP的介绍详见项目网站:http://www.issp.org。
(2)欧洲国家包括奥地利、比利时、保加利亚、克罗地亚、捷克、丹麦、芬兰、法国、德国、匈牙利、冰岛、爱尔兰、拉脱维亚、立陶宛、荷兰、挪威、波兰、葡萄牙、俄罗斯、斯洛伐克、斯洛文尼亚、瑞典、瑞士、英国,北美及大洋洲国家包括加拿大、美国、澳大利亚,拉美国家包括阿根廷、智利、墨西哥、委内瑞拉,亚洲国家和地区包括中国、中国台湾、印度、以色列、日本、韩国、菲律宾,非洲国家包括南非。
(3)GII的介绍参见http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/gender-inequality-index-gii。
(4)中国男性每周平均工作时长为53小时(跨国样本男性为47小时);中国女性每周平均工作时长为51小时(跨国样本女性为39小时)。
(5)如斯洛伐克、拉脱维亚。
(6)详见https://stats.oecd.org/。
(7)根据第六次全国人口普查统计,中国女性周均工作时间为43.6小时。
(8)受访者在“在有了孩子以后,您配偶/伴侣的工作状况如何?”题项下选择回答“小孩还没上学的时候出去做全职工作”的比例。
(9)此处的统计包括女性回答自己在“小孩还没上学的时候出去做全职工作”以及男性回答配偶/伴侣在“小孩还没上学的时候出去做全职工作”的比例。中国为52%,仅处在中等偏高水平。