绝对重要性和认知负荷影响基于事件的前瞻记忆
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摘要
采用绝对重要性的指导语来操纵前瞻记忆任务重要或者不重要,并且以Stroop任务作为进行中任务,来考察绝对重要性和认知负荷对基于事件前瞻记忆的影响。结果发现,低认知负荷条件下的前瞻记忆表现好于高认知负荷条件。低认知负荷条件下,强调重要性有利于进行中任务的完成;而在高认知负荷条件下,强调重要性则不利于进行中任务的完成。这说明,认知负荷会影响前瞻记忆的重要性效应,支持多重加工理论。
Prospective memory is to remember an intention at an appropriate moment in the future, and can be classified into event-based prospective memory(EBPM) and time-based prospective memory(TBPM). The importance of prospective memory task can be manipulated by using relative importance instructions(i.e., emphasizing that the prospective memory task is more important relative to the ongoing task) or absolute importance instructions(i.e., emphasizing that the prospective memory task itself is important). Previous studies have shown that manipulating relative importance resulted in enhanced prospective memory performance but came at costs in the ongoing task. However, the influence of manipulating absolute importance on event-based prospective memory and its processing mechanisms is still not clear. The existing studies have shown that the occurrence of an importance effect on prospective memory may be influenced by cognitive load of the ongoing task. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of absolute importance and the cognitive load of the ongoing task on event-based prospective memory. A group of 31 college students participated in this study with a 2(absolute importance: important vs. non-important) by 2(cognitive load: low vs. high) within-participant factorial design. We manipulated the absolute importance by instructing participants that remembering to perform the prospective memory task was very important or not important, and adopted the Stroop task as ongoing task, with color-word congruent condition as low load condition and color-word incongruent condition as high load condition. Four Chinese characters(red, yellow, blue, green) written in one of the eight colors(red, yellow, blue, green, pink, orange, cyan, emerald) were used and were presented in pseudorandom order. The Stroop task was to identify the appropriate color(red, yellow, blue, green) of the Chinese characters by pressing the correct keys on the computer keyboard as quickly as possible. The prospective memory task was to press the space key on the computer keyboard upon the presentation of one of the four specific colors(pink, orange, cyan, emerald) while performing the Stroop task. The results revealed that the reaction times(RTs) in the prospective memory task in the low load condition was faster than the high load condition. Importantly, there were interactions between absolute importance and cognitive load for both accuracies and RTs in the ongoing task. In the low load condition, the ongoing task performance with emphasizing the importance of prospective memory task was better than that in the nonimportant condition. However, in the high load condition, the ongoing task performance with emphasizing the importance of prospective memory task was poorer than that in the non-important condition. The present study suggests that cognitive load of the ongoing task modulates the effects of absolute importance on ongoing task, consistent with the multi-process theory. When the current ongoing task is of low cognitive load, emphasizing the importance of prospective memory task may boost the performance of ongoing task together. However, when the current ongoing task is of high cognitive load, emphasizing the importance of prospective memory task may occupy scarce cognitive resources and hence interfere with the performance of the ongoing task.
Prospective memory is to remember an intention at an appropriate moment in the future, and can be classified into event-based prospective memory(EBPM) and time-based prospective memory(TBPM). The importance of prospective memory task can be manipulated by using relative importance instructions(i.e., emphasizing that the prospective memory task is more important relative to the ongoing task) or absolute importance instructions(i.e., emphasizing that the prospective memory task itself is important). Previous studies have shown that manipulating relative importance resulted in enhanced prospective memory performance but came at costs in the ongoing task. However, the influence of manipulating absolute importance on event-based prospective memory and its processing mechanisms is still not clear. The existing studies have shown that the occurrence of an importance effect on prospective memory may be influenced by cognitive load of the ongoing task. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of absolute importance and the cognitive load of the ongoing task on event-based prospective memory. A group of 31 college students participated in this study with a 2(absolute importance: important vs. non-important) by 2(cognitive load: low vs. high) within-participant factorial design. We manipulated the absolute importance by instructing participants that remembering to perform the prospective memory task was very important or not important, and adopted the Stroop task as ongoing task, with color-word congruent condition as low load condition and color-word incongruent condition as high load condition. Four Chinese characters(red, yellow, blue, green) written in one of the eight colors(red, yellow, blue, green, pink, orange, cyan, emerald) were used and were presented in pseudorandom order. The Stroop task was to identify the appropriate color(red, yellow, blue, green) of the Chinese characters by pressing the correct keys on the computer keyboard as quickly as possible. The prospective memory task was to press the space key on the computer keyboard upon the presentation of one of the four specific colors(pink, orange, cyan, emerald) while performing the Stroop task. The results revealed that the reaction times(RTs) in the prospective memory task in the low load condition was faster than the high load condition. Importantly, there were interactions between absolute importance and cognitive load for both accuracies and RTs in the ongoing task. In the low load condition, the ongoing task performance with emphasizing the importance of prospective memory task was better than that in the nonimportant condition. However, in the high load condition, the ongoing task performance with emphasizing the importance of prospective memory task was poorer than that in the non-important condition. The present study suggests that cognitive load of the ongoing task modulates the effects of absolute importance on ongoing task, consistent with the multi-process theory. When the current ongoing task is of low cognitive load, emphasizing the importance of prospective memory task may boost the performance of ongoing task together. However, when the current ongoing task is of high cognitive load, emphasizing the importance of prospective memory task may occupy scarce cognitive resources and hence interfere with the performance of the ongoing task.
引文
陈幼贞,黄希庭,袁宏.(2010).一种混合型前瞻记忆的加工机制.心理学报,42(11),1040-1049.
王丽娟,张哲,张常锋,李广政,于战宇.(2014).进行中任务变化对轻度认知功能障碍者基于事件前瞻记忆的影响.心理学报,46(10),1454-1462.
袁宏,袁祥勇,尹天子,陈幼贞,黄希庭.(2011).背景任务刺激间的时距对前瞻干扰效应的影响.心理学报,43(5),500-508.
张芝,王健,张彤,葛列众.(2006).任务重要性对前瞻记忆的迁移恰当加工效应的影响.心理学报,38(5),718-723.
Brandimonte,M.A.,&Ferrante,D.(2015).Effects of material and non-material rewards on remembering to do things for others.Frontiers in Human Neuroscience,9,647.
Brandimonte,M.E.,Einstein,G.O.,&McDaniel,M.A.(1996).Prospective memory:Theory and applications.Neuropsychologia,35(10),1423-1423.
D'Angelo,G.,Bosco,A.,Bianco,C.,&Brandimonte,M.A.(2012).The effects of collaboration and competition on pro-social prospective memory.Psychologica Belgica,52(2-3),205-228.
Einstein,G.O.,&McDaniel,M.A.(1990).Normal aging and prospective memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,16(4),717-726.
Einstein,G.O.,McDaniel,M.A.,Thomas,R.,Mayfield,S.,Shank,H.,Morrisette,N.,&Breneiser,J.(2005).Multiple processes in prospective memory retrieval:Factors determining monitoring versus spontaneous retrieval.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,134(3),327-342.
Hering,A.,Phillips,L.H.,&Kliegel,M.(2014).Importance effects on age differences in performance in event-based prospective memory.Gerontology,60(1),73-78.
Kingma,A.,Heij,W.L.,Fasotti,L.,&Eling,P.(1996).Stroop interference and disorders of selective attention.Neuropsychologia,34(4),273-281.
Kliegel,M.,Martin,M.,McDaniel,M.A.,&Einstein,G.O.(2001).Varying the importance of a prospective memory task:Differential effects across timeand event-based prospective memory.Memory,9(1),1-11.
Kliegel,M.,Martin,M.,McDaniel,M.A.,&Einstein,G.O.(2004).Importance effects on performance in event-based prospective memory tasks.Memory,12(5),553-561.
Loft,S.,Kearney,R.,&Remington,R.(2008).Is task interference in event-based prospective memory dependent on cue presentation?Memory and Cognition,36(1),139-148.
Loft,S.,&Yeo,G.(2007).An investigation into the resource requirements of event-based prospective memory.Memory and Cognition,35(2),263-274.
Marsh,R.L.,Hicks,J.L.,Cook,G.I.,Hansen,J.S.,&Pallos,A.L.(2003).Interference to ongoing activities covaries with the characteristics of an eventbased intention.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,29(5),861-870.
Mc Daniel,M.A.,&Einstein,G.O.(2000).Strategic and automatic processes in prospective memory retrieval:A multiprocess framework.Applied Cognitive Psychology,14(7),S127-S144.
Meier,B.,&Zimmermann,T.D.(2015).Loads and loads and loads:The influence of prospective load,retrospective load,and ongoing task load in prospective memory.Frontiers in Human Neuroscience,9,322.
Nakaaki,S.,Watanabe,H.,Nakamura,H.,Yoshida,S.,Matui,T.,Kinoshita,Y.,&Furukawa,T.(2002).The influence of the stroop interference effect on an event-based prospective memory task in Alzheimer's disease patients.Psychogeriatrics,2(2),120-126.
Nied?wieńska,A.,Janik,B.,&Jarczyńska,A.(2013).Age-related differences in everyday prospective memory tasks:The role of planning and personal importance.International Journal of Psychology,48(6),1291-1302.
Penningroth,S.L.,&Scott,W.D.(2007).A motivational-cognitive model of prospective memory:The influence of goal relevance.In F.Columbus(Ed.),Psychology of motivation(pp.115-128).Hauppauge,NY:Nova Science Publishers.
Penningroth,S.L.,&Scott,W.D.(2013).Task importance effects on prospective memory strategy use.Applied Cognitive Psychology,27(5),655-662.
Smith,R.E.(2003).The cost of remembering to remember in event-based prospective memory:Investigating the capacity demands of delayed intention performance.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,29(3),347-361.
Smith,R.E.,&Bayen,U.J.(2004).A multinomial model of event-based prospective memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,30(4),756-777.
Smith,R.E.,&Hunt,R.R.(2014).Prospective memory in young and older adults:The effects of task importance and ongoing task load.Aging,Neuropsychology,and Cognition,21(4),411-431.
Walter,S.,&Meier,B.(2014).How important is importance for prospective memory?A review.Frontiers in Psychology,5,657.
Walter,S.,&Meier,B.(2016a).The impact of absolute importance and processing overlaps on prospective memory performance.Applied Cognitive Psychology,30(2),170-177.
Walter,S.,&Meier,B.(2016b).Social importance enhances prospective memory:Evidence from an event-based task.Memory,25(6),777-783.
Woods,S.P.,Doyle,K.L.,Morgan,E.E.,Naar-King,S.,Outlaw,A.Y.,Nichols,S.L.,&Loft,S.(2014).Task importance affects event-based prospective memory performance in adults with HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders and HIV-infected young adults with problematic substance use.Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society,20(6),652-662.
王丽娟,张哲,张常锋,李广政,于战宇.(2014).进行中任务变化对轻度认知功能障碍者基于事件前瞻记忆的影响.心理学报,46(10),1454-1462.
袁宏,袁祥勇,尹天子,陈幼贞,黄希庭.(2011).背景任务刺激间的时距对前瞻干扰效应的影响.心理学报,43(5),500-508.
张芝,王健,张彤,葛列众.(2006).任务重要性对前瞻记忆的迁移恰当加工效应的影响.心理学报,38(5),718-723.
Brandimonte,M.A.,&Ferrante,D.(2015).Effects of material and non-material rewards on remembering to do things for others.Frontiers in Human Neuroscience,9,647.
Brandimonte,M.E.,Einstein,G.O.,&McDaniel,M.A.(1996).Prospective memory:Theory and applications.Neuropsychologia,35(10),1423-1423.
D'Angelo,G.,Bosco,A.,Bianco,C.,&Brandimonte,M.A.(2012).The effects of collaboration and competition on pro-social prospective memory.Psychologica Belgica,52(2-3),205-228.
Einstein,G.O.,&McDaniel,M.A.(1990).Normal aging and prospective memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,16(4),717-726.
Einstein,G.O.,McDaniel,M.A.,Thomas,R.,Mayfield,S.,Shank,H.,Morrisette,N.,&Breneiser,J.(2005).Multiple processes in prospective memory retrieval:Factors determining monitoring versus spontaneous retrieval.Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,134(3),327-342.
Hering,A.,Phillips,L.H.,&Kliegel,M.(2014).Importance effects on age differences in performance in event-based prospective memory.Gerontology,60(1),73-78.
Kingma,A.,Heij,W.L.,Fasotti,L.,&Eling,P.(1996).Stroop interference and disorders of selective attention.Neuropsychologia,34(4),273-281.
Kliegel,M.,Martin,M.,McDaniel,M.A.,&Einstein,G.O.(2001).Varying the importance of a prospective memory task:Differential effects across timeand event-based prospective memory.Memory,9(1),1-11.
Kliegel,M.,Martin,M.,McDaniel,M.A.,&Einstein,G.O.(2004).Importance effects on performance in event-based prospective memory tasks.Memory,12(5),553-561.
Loft,S.,Kearney,R.,&Remington,R.(2008).Is task interference in event-based prospective memory dependent on cue presentation?Memory and Cognition,36(1),139-148.
Loft,S.,&Yeo,G.(2007).An investigation into the resource requirements of event-based prospective memory.Memory and Cognition,35(2),263-274.
Marsh,R.L.,Hicks,J.L.,Cook,G.I.,Hansen,J.S.,&Pallos,A.L.(2003).Interference to ongoing activities covaries with the characteristics of an eventbased intention.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,29(5),861-870.
Mc Daniel,M.A.,&Einstein,G.O.(2000).Strategic and automatic processes in prospective memory retrieval:A multiprocess framework.Applied Cognitive Psychology,14(7),S127-S144.
Meier,B.,&Zimmermann,T.D.(2015).Loads and loads and loads:The influence of prospective load,retrospective load,and ongoing task load in prospective memory.Frontiers in Human Neuroscience,9,322.
Nakaaki,S.,Watanabe,H.,Nakamura,H.,Yoshida,S.,Matui,T.,Kinoshita,Y.,&Furukawa,T.(2002).The influence of the stroop interference effect on an event-based prospective memory task in Alzheimer's disease patients.Psychogeriatrics,2(2),120-126.
Nied?wieńska,A.,Janik,B.,&Jarczyńska,A.(2013).Age-related differences in everyday prospective memory tasks:The role of planning and personal importance.International Journal of Psychology,48(6),1291-1302.
Penningroth,S.L.,&Scott,W.D.(2007).A motivational-cognitive model of prospective memory:The influence of goal relevance.In F.Columbus(Ed.),Psychology of motivation(pp.115-128).Hauppauge,NY:Nova Science Publishers.
Penningroth,S.L.,&Scott,W.D.(2013).Task importance effects on prospective memory strategy use.Applied Cognitive Psychology,27(5),655-662.
Smith,R.E.(2003).The cost of remembering to remember in event-based prospective memory:Investigating the capacity demands of delayed intention performance.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,29(3),347-361.
Smith,R.E.,&Bayen,U.J.(2004).A multinomial model of event-based prospective memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning,Memory,and Cognition,30(4),756-777.
Smith,R.E.,&Hunt,R.R.(2014).Prospective memory in young and older adults:The effects of task importance and ongoing task load.Aging,Neuropsychology,and Cognition,21(4),411-431.
Walter,S.,&Meier,B.(2014).How important is importance for prospective memory?A review.Frontiers in Psychology,5,657.
Walter,S.,&Meier,B.(2016a).The impact of absolute importance and processing overlaps on prospective memory performance.Applied Cognitive Psychology,30(2),170-177.
Walter,S.,&Meier,B.(2016b).Social importance enhances prospective memory:Evidence from an event-based task.Memory,25(6),777-783.
Woods,S.P.,Doyle,K.L.,Morgan,E.E.,Naar-King,S.,Outlaw,A.Y.,Nichols,S.L.,&Loft,S.(2014).Task importance affects event-based prospective memory performance in adults with HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders and HIV-infected young adults with problematic substance use.Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society,20(6),652-662.