组织领地行为的新探索——基于个体主义与集体主义文化对比视角
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摘要
将组织领地议题引入中国情境时需要考虑文化差异带来的领地内涵的变化。据此,本文拟在个体主义与集体主义文化视角下围绕中西文化的具体差异对组织领地议题内涵进行调整。首先,本文论述了从个体主义—集体主义视角审视组织内领地行为的意义;其次,基于个体主义—集体主义的文化维度,对组织领地行为进行了跨文化对比分析;再次,为了深入刻画组织领地在中国本土情境下的内涵,本文进一步探讨了集体主义文化下组织领地行为的新表现,引入并探索了圈子、人情、面子以及隐忍性格特质对组织领地行为的影响。进而,本文探讨了组织领地本土化可能面临的挑战,并在此基础上透过组织领地本土化识别出构建本土化管理理论可能面临的挑战。最后,本文指出组织领地议题后续发展的几个可行方向。本文在推动有理有据的组织管理本土化研究进展中做出了一定的贡献。
With the increasing attention paid to research on organizational territoriality in recent years, scholars have been seeking to explore its antecedents as well as the consequences, in order to contribute to the theory of territoriality.However,the research on organizational territoriality should consider cultural differences when we study it in a certain cultural backdrop(e.g.,Chinese),that differs from the western culture where the theory was born.Although culture has been used to determine and explain preferences in modes of conduct in individuals and collectivities,it remains a major determinant of individuals’psychology,attitude,and behavior.As a result,the definition and effects of organizational territoriality may vary as a function of culture.In addition,territorial behavior is a social construct,whose meaning lies in social interactions among members that may be easily influenced by culture.The social nature of territoriality indicates that it may be sensitive to cultural differences.Accordingly,the current study aims to explore how the cultural differences can shape organizational territoriality.In particular,this study hinges on the influences of individualism-collectivism on organizational territoriality from a cross-cultural perspective.This is because individualism-collectivism has been demonstrated as the most significant factor reflecting cultural differences between the west and the rest of the world.Besides,it also captures the ways individuals define the relationship between the self and the collective thereby showcasing the boundaries between the self and other members in social interactions.Firstly,we answer the question:why should we consider the differences between individualism and collectivism in studying organizational territoriality?We argue that the ways that individuals define the self will affect the ways they define the boundaries of their territories.Secondly,based on the cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism,we compare the territoriality under individualistic culture with that under collectivistic culture.We posit that,compared with individuals under individualistic culture,employees in collectivistic culture are more likely to display identity-oriented marks of a territoriality and anticipatory defense,and to exhibit less reactionary defense but the same level of control-oriented territorial mark.Thirdly,in order to deepen our understanding of organizational territoriality in Chinese collectivistic context,we explore the effects of quanzi,renqing(favor),face and the trait of tolerance on organizational territoriality.We argue that individuals will display less territoriality toward members within quanzi than those outside quanzi,and display more territoriality when they are sensitive to face lose.Besides,individuals who care about renqing and/or are high on tolerance will be less defensive.Fourthly,we identify the challenges for studying territoriality in Chinese collectivistic context,and further we discuss the relevance of the challenges for developing an indigenous theory of organizational territoriality and culture.For example,more and more Chinese employees are becoming bicultural and culturally adapted to both the Western and Chinese ways of life,which tend to challenge the existing cultural framework.Lastly,theoretical and practical implications for organizational territoriality and indigenous management are examined and evaluated.
With the increasing attention paid to research on organizational territoriality in recent years, scholars have been seeking to explore its antecedents as well as the consequences, in order to contribute to the theory of territoriality.However,the research on organizational territoriality should consider cultural differences when we study it in a certain cultural backdrop(e.g.,Chinese),that differs from the western culture where the theory was born.Although culture has been used to determine and explain preferences in modes of conduct in individuals and collectivities,it remains a major determinant of individuals’psychology,attitude,and behavior.As a result,the definition and effects of organizational territoriality may vary as a function of culture.In addition,territorial behavior is a social construct,whose meaning lies in social interactions among members that may be easily influenced by culture.The social nature of territoriality indicates that it may be sensitive to cultural differences.Accordingly,the current study aims to explore how the cultural differences can shape organizational territoriality.In particular,this study hinges on the influences of individualism-collectivism on organizational territoriality from a cross-cultural perspective.This is because individualism-collectivism has been demonstrated as the most significant factor reflecting cultural differences between the west and the rest of the world.Besides,it also captures the ways individuals define the relationship between the self and the collective thereby showcasing the boundaries between the self and other members in social interactions.Firstly,we answer the question:why should we consider the differences between individualism and collectivism in studying organizational territoriality?We argue that the ways that individuals define the self will affect the ways they define the boundaries of their territories.Secondly,based on the cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism,we compare the territoriality under individualistic culture with that under collectivistic culture.We posit that,compared with individuals under individualistic culture,employees in collectivistic culture are more likely to display identity-oriented marks of a territoriality and anticipatory defense,and to exhibit less reactionary defense but the same level of control-oriented territorial mark.Thirdly,in order to deepen our understanding of organizational territoriality in Chinese collectivistic context,we explore the effects of quanzi,renqing(favor),face and the trait of tolerance on organizational territoriality.We argue that individuals will display less territoriality toward members within quanzi than those outside quanzi,and display more territoriality when they are sensitive to face lose.Besides,individuals who care about renqing and/or are high on tolerance will be less defensive.Fourthly,we identify the challenges for studying territoriality in Chinese collectivistic context,and further we discuss the relevance of the challenges for developing an indigenous theory of organizational territoriality and culture.For example,more and more Chinese employees are becoming bicultural and culturally adapted to both the Western and Chinese ways of life,which tend to challenge the existing cultural framework.Lastly,theoretical and practical implications for organizational territoriality and indigenous management are examined and evaluated.
引文
[1]陈维政,任晗.人情关系和社会交换关系的比较分析与管理策略研究[J].管理学报,2015,12(6):789-798.
[2]储小平,倪婧.组织内领地性研究前沿探析[J].外国经济与管理,2009,31(3):1-8.
[3]黄光国,胡先缙.人情与面子--中国人的权力游戏[J].领导文萃,2005,(7):162-166.
[4]金耀基.人际关系中人情之分析[A].金耀基.中国社会与文化[C].牛津:牛津大学,1993.
[5]金占明,王克稳.中国管理研究选题的误区及科学性判断标准[J].管理学报,2015,12(4):477-483.
[6]陆亚东,符正平.“水”隐喻在中国特色管理理论中的运用[J].外国经济与管理,2016,38(1):3-14.
[7]刘军,陈星汶,肖宁,等.当协作要求遇上“山头主义”:领地行为与任务相依性对团队绩效的影响研究[J].华南师范大学学报:社会科学版,2016,(5):99-109.
[8]苏敬勤,张琳琳.情境内涵、分类与情境化研究现状[J].管理学报,2016,13(4):491-497.
[9]肖知兴.中国人为什么组织不起来[M].中信出版社,2012.
[10]杨国枢.中国人的心理[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社,1970.
[11]杨国枢.中国人的社会取向:社会互动的观点[J].中国人的心理与行为:理论与方法篇.台北:桂冠图书公司,1993,87-142.
[12]翟学伟.中国人行动的逻辑[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2001.
[13]翟学伟.人情、面子与权力的再生产[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2013.
[14]张佳良,刘军.领地侵略行为:组织领地研究的新拓展[R].工作论文,2017.
[15]张田,罗家德.圈子中的组织公民行为[J].管理学报,2015,12(10):1442-1449.
[16]Ardrey R.The territorial imperative:A personal inquiry into the animal origins of property and nations[J].The Quarterly Review of Biology,1967,42(4):280-285.
[17]Brewer M B and Gardner W.Who is this“we”?Levels of collective identity and self representations[J].Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,1996,71(1):83-93.
[18]Barkema H G,Chen X P,George G,et al.West meets east:New concepts and theories[J].Academy of Management Journal,2015,58(2):460-479.
[19]Brown G and Menkhoff T.Territoriality over knowledge towards a cross-cultural perspective[J].Journal of Asian Business,2008,22(2):103-112.
[20]Brown G and Robinson S L.Reactions to territorial infringement[J].Organization Science,2011,22(1):210-224.
[21]Brown G,Lawrence T B and Robinson S L.Territoriality in organizations[J].Academy of Management Review,2005,30(3):577-594.
[22]Brown G and Robinson S L.The dysfunction of territoriality in organizations[J].Research Companion to the Dysfunctional Workplace:Management Challenges and Symptoms,2007:252-288.
[23]Brown G and Baer M.Protecting the turf:The effect of territorial marking on others’creativity[J].Journal of Applied Psychology,2015,100(6):1785-1797.
[24]Bond M H and Smith P B.Cross-cultural social and organizational psychology[J].Annual Review of Psychology,1996,47(1):205-235.
[25]Gardner T M,Munyon T P,Hom P W,and Griffeth R W.When territoriality meets agency:An examination of employee guarding as a territorial strategy[J].Journal of Management,2017,in press.
[26]Ho D Y.On the concept of face[J].American Journal of Sociology,1976,81(4):867-884.
[27]Hui C H,Triandis H C and Yee C.Cultural differences in reward allocation:Is collectivism the explanation?[J].British Journal of Social Psychology,1991,30(2):145-157.
[28]Hofstede G.Culture’s consequences:International differences in work-related values[M].Sage,1984.
[29]Higgins E T.Beyond pleasure and pain[J].American Psychologist,1997,52(12):1280-1300.
[30]Koch B J and Koch P T.Collectivism,individualism,and out-group cooperation in a segmented China[J].Asia Pacific Journal of Management,2007,24(2):207-225.
[31]Lalwani A K,Shrum L J and Chiu C Y.Motivated response styles:The role of cultural values,regulatory focus,and selfconsciousness in socially desirable responding[J].Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,2009,96(4):870-882.
[32]Lee A Y,Aaker J L and Gardner W L.The pleasures and pains of distinct self-construals:The role of interdependence in regulatory focus[J].Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,2000,78(6):1122-1134.
[33]Leung K.Some determinants of conflict avoidance[J].Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,1988,19(1):125-136.
[34]Ma L and Tsui A S.Traditional Chinese philosophies and contemporary leadership[J].Leadership Quarterly,2015,26(1):13-24.
[35]Markus H R and Kitayama S.Culture and the self:Implications for cognition,emotion,and motivation[J].Psychological Review,1991,98(2):224-253.
[36]Peng H.Why and when do people hide knowledge?[J].Journal of Knowledge Management,2013,17(3):398-415.
[37]Triandis H C.Individualism&collectivism[M].Westview press,1995.
[2]储小平,倪婧.组织内领地性研究前沿探析[J].外国经济与管理,2009,31(3):1-8.
[3]黄光国,胡先缙.人情与面子--中国人的权力游戏[J].领导文萃,2005,(7):162-166.
[4]金耀基.人际关系中人情之分析[A].金耀基.中国社会与文化[C].牛津:牛津大学,1993.
[5]金占明,王克稳.中国管理研究选题的误区及科学性判断标准[J].管理学报,2015,12(4):477-483.
[6]陆亚东,符正平.“水”隐喻在中国特色管理理论中的运用[J].外国经济与管理,2016,38(1):3-14.
[7]刘军,陈星汶,肖宁,等.当协作要求遇上“山头主义”:领地行为与任务相依性对团队绩效的影响研究[J].华南师范大学学报:社会科学版,2016,(5):99-109.
[8]苏敬勤,张琳琳.情境内涵、分类与情境化研究现状[J].管理学报,2016,13(4):491-497.
[9]肖知兴.中国人为什么组织不起来[M].中信出版社,2012.
[10]杨国枢.中国人的心理[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社,1970.
[11]杨国枢.中国人的社会取向:社会互动的观点[J].中国人的心理与行为:理论与方法篇.台北:桂冠图书公司,1993,87-142.
[12]翟学伟.中国人行动的逻辑[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2001.
[13]翟学伟.人情、面子与权力的再生产[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2013.
[14]张佳良,刘军.领地侵略行为:组织领地研究的新拓展[R].工作论文,2017.
[15]张田,罗家德.圈子中的组织公民行为[J].管理学报,2015,12(10):1442-1449.
[16]Ardrey R.The territorial imperative:A personal inquiry into the animal origins of property and nations[J].The Quarterly Review of Biology,1967,42(4):280-285.
[17]Brewer M B and Gardner W.Who is this“we”?Levels of collective identity and self representations[J].Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,1996,71(1):83-93.
[18]Barkema H G,Chen X P,George G,et al.West meets east:New concepts and theories[J].Academy of Management Journal,2015,58(2):460-479.
[19]Brown G and Menkhoff T.Territoriality over knowledge towards a cross-cultural perspective[J].Journal of Asian Business,2008,22(2):103-112.
[20]Brown G and Robinson S L.Reactions to territorial infringement[J].Organization Science,2011,22(1):210-224.
[21]Brown G,Lawrence T B and Robinson S L.Territoriality in organizations[J].Academy of Management Review,2005,30(3):577-594.
[22]Brown G and Robinson S L.The dysfunction of territoriality in organizations[J].Research Companion to the Dysfunctional Workplace:Management Challenges and Symptoms,2007:252-288.
[23]Brown G and Baer M.Protecting the turf:The effect of territorial marking on others’creativity[J].Journal of Applied Psychology,2015,100(6):1785-1797.
[24]Bond M H and Smith P B.Cross-cultural social and organizational psychology[J].Annual Review of Psychology,1996,47(1):205-235.
[25]Gardner T M,Munyon T P,Hom P W,and Griffeth R W.When territoriality meets agency:An examination of employee guarding as a territorial strategy[J].Journal of Management,2017,in press.
[26]Ho D Y.On the concept of face[J].American Journal of Sociology,1976,81(4):867-884.
[27]Hui C H,Triandis H C and Yee C.Cultural differences in reward allocation:Is collectivism the explanation?[J].British Journal of Social Psychology,1991,30(2):145-157.
[28]Hofstede G.Culture’s consequences:International differences in work-related values[M].Sage,1984.
[29]Higgins E T.Beyond pleasure and pain[J].American Psychologist,1997,52(12):1280-1300.
[30]Koch B J and Koch P T.Collectivism,individualism,and out-group cooperation in a segmented China[J].Asia Pacific Journal of Management,2007,24(2):207-225.
[31]Lalwani A K,Shrum L J and Chiu C Y.Motivated response styles:The role of cultural values,regulatory focus,and selfconsciousness in socially desirable responding[J].Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,2009,96(4):870-882.
[32]Lee A Y,Aaker J L and Gardner W L.The pleasures and pains of distinct self-construals:The role of interdependence in regulatory focus[J].Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,2000,78(6):1122-1134.
[33]Leung K.Some determinants of conflict avoidance[J].Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,1988,19(1):125-136.
[34]Ma L and Tsui A S.Traditional Chinese philosophies and contemporary leadership[J].Leadership Quarterly,2015,26(1):13-24.
[35]Markus H R and Kitayama S.Culture and the self:Implications for cognition,emotion,and motivation[J].Psychological Review,1991,98(2):224-253.
[36]Peng H.Why and when do people hide knowledge?[J].Journal of Knowledge Management,2013,17(3):398-415.
[37]Triandis H C.Individualism&collectivism[M].Westview press,1995.