论内战时期美国联邦政府的战俘政策
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摘要
国内外的战争经验形成了美国战俘政策三原则,即对等交换、适度报复与不承认特定参战群体的战俘身份,贯穿于联邦政府处理内战战俘问题的始终。内战初期,以"戴维斯号事件"为契机,林肯总统被迫默认了南部邦联的交战国身份,此举为双方于1863年7月22日签订《战俘交换协议书》奠定基础。"皮洛堡事件"则成为联邦战俘政策的重要转折点,尤利西斯·格兰特以捍卫黑人士兵的战俘权为由,严禁交换战俘。直到1864总统大选的临近,林肯政府为减少舆论压力与拉拢选民,重启仅限于伤病战俘的特定交换。作为军政利益的祭品,战俘成了南北双方的重要宣传工具。相互冲突的战俘叙事加剧了南北认同的分化,阻碍了民族和解的实现。
The war experience formed the three principles of American policy of prisoners of war, which were reciprocal exchange,moderate retaliation and nonrecognition of the prisoner's identity of particular combatant groups. These principles worked throughout the handling of prisoners in the Civil War. In the early stage of the Civil War, taking the "Davis event" as an opportunity, President Lincoln was forced to acquiesce in the belligerent identity of the Confederacy, which laid the foundation for the Prisoner General Exchange Cartel signed on July 22, 1863. The "Fort Pillow incident" became an important turning point in federal policy of prisoners of war. Ulysses Grant banned the exchange of prisoners of war due to the defense of the prisoner rights of black soldiers. It was not until the presidential election in November 1864 that the Lincoln administration resumed a special exchange aimed at wounded prisoners of war in order to reduce public pressure and woo voters. As a victim of military and political interests,prisoners of war were used as an important propaganda tool by both sides.
The war experience formed the three principles of American policy of prisoners of war, which were reciprocal exchange,moderate retaliation and nonrecognition of the prisoner's identity of particular combatant groups. These principles worked throughout the handling of prisoners in the Civil War. In the early stage of the Civil War, taking the "Davis event" as an opportunity, President Lincoln was forced to acquiesce in the belligerent identity of the Confederacy, which laid the foundation for the Prisoner General Exchange Cartel signed on July 22, 1863. The "Fort Pillow incident" became an important turning point in federal policy of prisoners of war. Ulysses Grant banned the exchange of prisoners of war due to the defense of the prisoner rights of black soldiers. It was not until the presidential election in November 1864 that the Lincoln administration resumed a special exchange aimed at wounded prisoners of war in order to reduce public pressure and woo voters. As a victim of military and political interests,prisoners of war were used as an important propaganda tool by both sides.
引文
①④Speer,Lonnie R.Portals to Hell:Military Prisons of the Civil War.Mechanicsburg:Stackpole Books,1997,XIV.
②Isham,Asa B.,Henry M.Davidson,and Henry B.Furness.Prisoners of War and Military Prisons.Cincinnati:Lyman & Cushing,1890,475.
③Heseltine,William B.Civil War Prisons:A Study in War Psychology.Columbus:Ohio State University Press,1930.
⑤(91)Sanders,Charles W.While in the Hands of the Enemy:Military Prisons of the Civil War.Baton Rouge:Louisiana State University Press,2005,5,227.
⑥(108)Cloyd,Benjamin G.Haunted by Atrocity:Civil War Prisons in American Memory.Baton Rouge:Louisiana State University Press,2010,108.
⑦Springer,Paul J.,and Robins Glenn.Critical Moments in American History:Transforming Civil War Prisons Lincoln,Lieber,and the Politics of Captivity.New York and London:Routledge,2015.
⑧有关内战战俘问题的研究专著还有Stevenson,Randolph R.The Southern Side or Andersonville Prison.Baltimore:Turnbull Brothers,1876;Futch,Ovid L.History of Andersonville Prison.Gainesville:University of Florida Press,1968;Peggy,Sheppard.Andersonville,Georgia,U.S.A.Leslie.GA:Sheppard Publications,1973;Cangemi,Joseph P.,and Casimir J.Kowalski.Andersonville Prison:Lessons in Organizational Failure.Lanham:University Press of America,1992;William,Marvel.Andersonville:The Last Depot.Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,1994;Davis,Robert S.“‘Near Andersonville’:An Historical Note on Civil War Legend and Reality.” Journal of African American History 92 (2007);Gillispie,James M.Andersonvilles of the North:The Myths and Realities of Northern Treatment of Civil War Confederate Prisoners.Denton:University of North Texas Press,2008;Gardner,Douglas G.“Andersonville and American Memory:Civil War Prisoners and Narratives of Suffering and Redemption.” PhD.diss.,Miami University,1998;Thomas,Eugene M.,III.“Prisoner of War Exchange during the American Civil War.” PhD.diss.,Auburn University,1976.
⑨Springer,Paul J.American's Captive:Treatment of Pows from the Revolutionary War to the War on Terror.Lawrence:University Press of Kansas,2010,19.
⑩Metzger,Charles H.The Prisoner in the American Revolution.Chicago:Loyola University Press,1971,113-115.
(11)“Cartel for the Exchange of Prisoners of War Between Great Britain and the United States of America,May 12,1813.” Document 190,Box 10,Entry 127,Record Group 94,National Archives,Washington.D.C.此协定规定交换比例如下:列兵之间1对1,列兵与军士长以2比1,列兵与少尉、中尉与上尉分别为4比1,6比1与8比1;列兵与少校、中校与上校为8比1,10比1与15比1;列兵与准将、少将、中将与司令为20比1,30比1,40比1与60比1交换。
(12)Lincoln,Abraham.Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln (vol.4).New Brunswick:Rutgers University Press,1953,441.
(13)Davis,Jefferson F.Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government.New York:Da Capo Press,1990,214.
(14)(22)(23)(26)(27)(53)(90)The War of the Rebellion:A Compilation of the Official Records(ser.2,vol.3).Washington:Government Printing Office,1892,186,153,55,312,500,347-349,350.
(15)Hunter,Leslie G.“Warden for the Union:General William Hoffman (1807-1884).” PhD.diss.,University of Arizona,1971.
(16)Shriver,Phillip R.,and Donald J.Breen.Ohio Military Prisons in the Civil War.Columbus:Ohio State University Press,1964,8.
(17)New York Times,26 June 1861.
(18)Corcoran,Michael.The Captivity of General Corcoran.Charleston:Nabu Press,2011,61.
(19)New York Times,1 August 1861.
(20)Simon,John Y.The Papers of Ulysses S.Grant.Carbondale:Southern Illinois University Press,1970,39.
(21)Donald,David H.Inside Lincoln's Cabinet:The Civil War Diaries of Salmon P.Chase.New York:Longman's Green,1954,48-49.
(24)(25)(47)(85)Heseltin,William B.Civil War Prisons:A Study in War Psychology.Columbus:Ohio State University Press,1930,38,29,79,223.
(28)(36)(49)The War of the Rebellion:A Compilation of the Official Records(ser.2,vol.4).Washington:Government Printing Office,1892,197,266-268,250.
(29)Letter,Telegrams,Orders,and Circulars Received from the Commissary General of Prisoners Relating to Paroled Federal and to Confederate Prisoners of War,1862-1865,Record Group 249,Entry 167.National Archives,Washington.D.C.
(30)Citron,Joel D.Confederate Prisoners at Fort Delaware:The Legend of Mistreatment Reexamined.Jefferson:McFarland & Company Publishers,2018,2.
(31)Quinn,Camilla A.Corlas.“Forgotten Soldiers:The Confederate Prisoners at Camp Butler,1862-1863.” Illinois Historical Journal 81,no.1 (1985):38.
(32)(33)The War of the Rebellion:A Compilation of the Official Records(ser.2,vol.2).Washington:Government Printing Office,1892,663-666,267.
(34)Ely,Alfred.Journal of Alfred Ely:A Prisoner of War in Richmond.New York:D.Appleton and Company,1862.
(35)New York Times,9 July 1862.
(37)New York Times,13 July 1862.
(38)Richmond Dispatch,16 and 25 July 1862.
(39)Thompson,Holland.The Photographic History of the Civil War,Volume 4:Soldier Life and Secret Service,Prisons and Hospitals.Secaucus:Blue and Gray Press,1987,109.
(40)Brown,Louis A.Salisbury Prison:A Case Study of Confederate Military Prison.Wendell:Avera Press and Breadroot's Bookmark,1980,2.双方共同交换了约2万名南部战俘和1.2万名北方战俘。
(41)(95)Lincoln,Abraham.Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln(vol.5).New Brunswick:Rutgers University Press,1953,260-265.
(42)Confederate States Army War Department,General Orders from Adjutant and Inspector General's Office,Confederate States Army,in 1862.Charleston:Evans and Cogswell,1863,67.
(43)http://www.civilwarhome.com/inhumanitiesofwar.htm.
(44)http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/civil-war/1862/civil-war-prisoner.htm.
(45)The War of the Rebellion:A Compilation of the Official Records(ser.2,vol.5).Washington:Government Printing Office,1892,128.
(46)Levy,George.To Die in Chicago:Confederate Prisoners at Camp Douglas 1862-1865.Gretna:Pelican Publishing Company,1999,94-95.
(48)“Historical Times Encyclopedia of the Civil War”,http://www.civilwarhome.com/parole.
(50)(93)(109)Springer,Paul J.,and Glenn Robins.Critical Moments in American History:Transforming Civil War Prisons Lincoln,Lieber,and the Politics of Captivity.New York and London:Routledge,2015,41,50,73.
(51)超过 29000 名南军士兵在维克斯堡地区投降,格兰特本想让这些被假释的南部士兵返乡,借机打击南部军民的士气。因急于补充前线兵员,南部违反议定书规定,于1863年9月提前把在维克斯堡获假释的邦联士兵投入西线战斗。
(52)Speer,Lonnie R.Portals to Hell:Military Prisons of the Civil War.Mechanicsburg:Stackpole,1997,114.
(54)McAdams,Benton.Rebels at Rock Island:The Story of a Civil War Prison.Dekalb:Northern Illinois University Press,2000,58.
(55)Marvel,William.Andersonville:The Last Depot.Chapel Hill:University of the North Carolina,1994,14.安德森维尔战俘营的正式名称为萨姆特战俘营。
(56)New York Times,15 November 1863.
(57)Richmond Examiner,30 October 1863.
(58)Springer,Paul J.,and Glenn Robins.Critical Moments in American History:Transforming Civil War Prisons Lincoln,Lieber,and the Politics of Captivity.New York and London:Routledge,2015,56.客观而言,《守则》的制定虽早于战俘交换协议,但因黑人当时尚未大规模参加战斗,故协议双方未考虑种族因素。由此看来,南部的说辞并非全无道理。
(59)(63)(64)(71)(74)(78)(79)(87)(88)The War of the Rebellion:A Compilation of the Official Records(ser.2,vol.7).Washington:Government Printing Office,1892,46-50,619,895,81,183-184,985,997,768,914.
(60)Butler,Benjamin F.Butler's Book.Boston:A.M.Thayer,1892,594.
(61)Hoffman,William.“Statement of Federal and Rebel Prisoners of War.” 16 April 1864,Box 2,Entry 149,RG 249.
(62)Thomas,Benjamin P.,and Harold M.Hyman.Stanton:The Life and Times of Lincoln's Secretary of War.New York:Alfred A.Knopf,1962,374.
(65)U.S.Congress.Report of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War(vol.3).Washington:Government Printing Office,1865,449-450,https://archive.org/details/reportofjointcomm01unit.
(66)Chicago Tribune,27 April 1864.
(67)(73)Lincoln,Abraham.Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln(vol.7).New Brunswick:Rutgers University Press,1953,303,345-346.
(68)Harper's Weekly,30 April 1864.
(69)John,Niven.Gideon Welles:Lincoln's Secretary of the Navy.New York:Oxford University Press,1973,402.海军士兵属于技术兵种,且不在斯坦顿的管辖权力内。一旦水兵阵亡与被俘,不像陆军那样能够迅速补充,故威尔斯一直支持战俘交换政策。
(70)Beale,Howard K.Diary of Edward Bates,1859-1866.Washington,D.C.:GPO,1933,365.
(72)Williams,Harry T.“Benjamin F.Wade and Atrocity Propaganda of the Civil War.” Ohio State Archeological and Historical Quarterly (1939):42.
(75)Gray,Michael P.The Business of Captivity:Elmira and Its Civil War Prison.Kent:The Kent State University Press,2001,27.
(76)Robertson,James I.“Scourge of Elmira.” Civil War History 8,no.2(1962):184-201.
(77)King,John R.My Experience in the Confederate Army and in Northern Prisons.Clarksburg:United Daughters of the Confederacy,1917,46.
(80)Braun,Herman A.Andersonville:An Object Lesson on Protection.Milwaukee:C.D.Fahsel,1892,161.
(81)Beers,Henry P.The Confederacy:A Guide to the Archives of the Government of the Confederate States of America.Washington,D.C.:National Archives and Record Administration,1986,250-258.
(82)从里士满转移到索里兹伯里的北方战俘分别在10月死亡267人,11月份死亡969人,12月死亡1164人。南部对北军战俘的大规模转移与谢尔曼的“向海洋进军”有关,随着大批土地的丢失,温德将军不断将北方拒绝交换的大量战俘向远离北军控制的地区转移。
(83)US Sanitary Commission.Narrative of Privations and Suffering of United States Official and Soldiers in the Hand of Rebel Authorities,Being the Report of a Commission of Inquiry Appointed by the United States Sanitary Commission,with an Appendix Containing the Testimony.Boston:Littell’s Living Age,1864,12-13.
(84)Richmond Examiner,8 October 1864.
(86)New York Times,10 November 1863,23 August and 8 September 1864.
(89)Rawley,James A.Turning Points of the Civil War.Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,1989,169.
(92)“失去的事业”是一场将南部邦联事业描绘为面对强敌而悲壮失败的事业。它赋予战前南部种种美德,将其美国内战建构成一场捍卫南部生活方式的荣耀搏斗,并竭力淡化奴隶制在触发内战中扮演的关键角色。
(94)Paludan,Phillip S.Presidency of Abraham Lincoln.Lawrence:University of Kansas Press,1994,106.
(96)The War of the Rebellion:A Compilation of the Official Records(ser.2,vol.8).Washington:Government Printing Office,1892,235.
(97)Bryant,William O.Cahaba Prison and Sultana Disaster.Tuscaloosa:University Alabama Press,129.
(98)Roberts,Nancy A.The Afterlife of Civil War Prisons and Their Dead.PhD.diss.,University of Oregon,1996,325.
(99)张慕智:《美国独立战争中的围绕美利坚战俘的宣传及其历史意义》,《世界历史》2017年第5期。
(100)Hutchinson,John F.Champions of Charity:War and the Rise of the Red Cross.Boulder:Westview Press,1996,123-126.
(101)Springer,Paul J.American Prisoner of War Policy and Practice from the Revolutionary War to the War on Terror.PhD.diss.,Texas A&M University,2006,103-136.
(102)Friedel,Frank B.Francis Lieber,Nineteenth Century Liberal.Baton Rouge:Louisiana State University Press,1947,329.联邦军队的《利伯守则》共有157条,全称是《美军战地管理条例》,起草人是哥伦比亚学院的政治经济学教授弗兰西斯·利伯。该守则规定了战俘的定义,保障了战俘的基本人权,捕获方不能随意处决战俘或成为其奴隶。虽然上述条款在美国内战中并未得到有效执行,但利伯守则对以后的国际战俘条约的制定提供了重要参考。
(103)Friedman,Leon.The Law of War:A Documentary History (vol.2).New York:Random House,1972,198-199.
(104)Musicant,Ivan.Empire by Default:The Spanish-American War and the Dawn of the American Century.New York:Henry Holt and Company,1998,475.
(105)McConnell,Stuart.Glorious Contentment:The Grand Army of the Republic,1865-1900.Chapel Hill:North Carolina University 1992,94-95.
(106)Coulter,Merton E.“Amnesty for all Except Jefferson Davis:The Hill-Blaine Debate of 1876.” Georgia Historical Quarterly 56 (1972):453-494.
(107)Southern Historical Society Papers,Vol.I.Richmond,Virginia,1876,No.3,http://www.civilwarhome.com/prisonertreatment.htm.
(110)https://www.google.ca/amp/s/amp.cnn.com/cnn/2017/08/12/us/charlottesville-white-nationalists-rally/index.html.
②Isham,Asa B.,Henry M.Davidson,and Henry B.Furness.Prisoners of War and Military Prisons.Cincinnati:Lyman & Cushing,1890,475.
③Heseltine,William B.Civil War Prisons:A Study in War Psychology.Columbus:Ohio State University Press,1930.
⑤(91)Sanders,Charles W.While in the Hands of the Enemy:Military Prisons of the Civil War.Baton Rouge:Louisiana State University Press,2005,5,227.
⑥(108)Cloyd,Benjamin G.Haunted by Atrocity:Civil War Prisons in American Memory.Baton Rouge:Louisiana State University Press,2010,108.
⑦Springer,Paul J.,and Robins Glenn.Critical Moments in American History:Transforming Civil War Prisons Lincoln,Lieber,and the Politics of Captivity.New York and London:Routledge,2015.
⑧有关内战战俘问题的研究专著还有Stevenson,Randolph R.The Southern Side or Andersonville Prison.Baltimore:Turnbull Brothers,1876;Futch,Ovid L.History of Andersonville Prison.Gainesville:University of Florida Press,1968;Peggy,Sheppard.Andersonville,Georgia,U.S.A.Leslie.GA:Sheppard Publications,1973;Cangemi,Joseph P.,and Casimir J.Kowalski.Andersonville Prison:Lessons in Organizational Failure.Lanham:University Press of America,1992;William,Marvel.Andersonville:The Last Depot.Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,1994;Davis,Robert S.“‘Near Andersonville’:An Historical Note on Civil War Legend and Reality.” Journal of African American History 92 (2007);Gillispie,James M.Andersonvilles of the North:The Myths and Realities of Northern Treatment of Civil War Confederate Prisoners.Denton:University of North Texas Press,2008;Gardner,Douglas G.“Andersonville and American Memory:Civil War Prisoners and Narratives of Suffering and Redemption.” PhD.diss.,Miami University,1998;Thomas,Eugene M.,III.“Prisoner of War Exchange during the American Civil War.” PhD.diss.,Auburn University,1976.
⑨Springer,Paul J.American's Captive:Treatment of Pows from the Revolutionary War to the War on Terror.Lawrence:University Press of Kansas,2010,19.
⑩Metzger,Charles H.The Prisoner in the American Revolution.Chicago:Loyola University Press,1971,113-115.
(11)“Cartel for the Exchange of Prisoners of War Between Great Britain and the United States of America,May 12,1813.” Document 190,Box 10,Entry 127,Record Group 94,National Archives,Washington.D.C.此协定规定交换比例如下:列兵之间1对1,列兵与军士长以2比1,列兵与少尉、中尉与上尉分别为4比1,6比1与8比1;列兵与少校、中校与上校为8比1,10比1与15比1;列兵与准将、少将、中将与司令为20比1,30比1,40比1与60比1交换。
(12)Lincoln,Abraham.Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln (vol.4).New Brunswick:Rutgers University Press,1953,441.
(13)Davis,Jefferson F.Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government.New York:Da Capo Press,1990,214.
(14)(22)(23)(26)(27)(53)(90)The War of the Rebellion:A Compilation of the Official Records(ser.2,vol.3).Washington:Government Printing Office,1892,186,153,55,312,500,347-349,350.
(15)Hunter,Leslie G.“Warden for the Union:General William Hoffman (1807-1884).” PhD.diss.,University of Arizona,1971.
(16)Shriver,Phillip R.,and Donald J.Breen.Ohio Military Prisons in the Civil War.Columbus:Ohio State University Press,1964,8.
(17)New York Times,26 June 1861.
(18)Corcoran,Michael.The Captivity of General Corcoran.Charleston:Nabu Press,2011,61.
(19)New York Times,1 August 1861.
(20)Simon,John Y.The Papers of Ulysses S.Grant.Carbondale:Southern Illinois University Press,1970,39.
(21)Donald,David H.Inside Lincoln's Cabinet:The Civil War Diaries of Salmon P.Chase.New York:Longman's Green,1954,48-49.
(24)(25)(47)(85)Heseltin,William B.Civil War Prisons:A Study in War Psychology.Columbus:Ohio State University Press,1930,38,29,79,223.
(28)(36)(49)The War of the Rebellion:A Compilation of the Official Records(ser.2,vol.4).Washington:Government Printing Office,1892,197,266-268,250.
(29)Letter,Telegrams,Orders,and Circulars Received from the Commissary General of Prisoners Relating to Paroled Federal and to Confederate Prisoners of War,1862-1865,Record Group 249,Entry 167.National Archives,Washington.D.C.
(30)Citron,Joel D.Confederate Prisoners at Fort Delaware:The Legend of Mistreatment Reexamined.Jefferson:McFarland & Company Publishers,2018,2.
(31)Quinn,Camilla A.Corlas.“Forgotten Soldiers:The Confederate Prisoners at Camp Butler,1862-1863.” Illinois Historical Journal 81,no.1 (1985):38.
(32)(33)The War of the Rebellion:A Compilation of the Official Records(ser.2,vol.2).Washington:Government Printing Office,1892,663-666,267.
(34)Ely,Alfred.Journal of Alfred Ely:A Prisoner of War in Richmond.New York:D.Appleton and Company,1862.
(35)New York Times,9 July 1862.
(37)New York Times,13 July 1862.
(38)Richmond Dispatch,16 and 25 July 1862.
(39)Thompson,Holland.The Photographic History of the Civil War,Volume 4:Soldier Life and Secret Service,Prisons and Hospitals.Secaucus:Blue and Gray Press,1987,109.
(40)Brown,Louis A.Salisbury Prison:A Case Study of Confederate Military Prison.Wendell:Avera Press and Breadroot's Bookmark,1980,2.双方共同交换了约2万名南部战俘和1.2万名北方战俘。
(41)(95)Lincoln,Abraham.Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln(vol.5).New Brunswick:Rutgers University Press,1953,260-265.
(42)Confederate States Army War Department,General Orders from Adjutant and Inspector General's Office,Confederate States Army,in 1862.Charleston:Evans and Cogswell,1863,67.
(43)http://www.civilwarhome.com/inhumanitiesofwar.htm.
(44)http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/civil-war/1862/civil-war-prisoner.htm.
(45)The War of the Rebellion:A Compilation of the Official Records(ser.2,vol.5).Washington:Government Printing Office,1892,128.
(46)Levy,George.To Die in Chicago:Confederate Prisoners at Camp Douglas 1862-1865.Gretna:Pelican Publishing Company,1999,94-95.
(48)“Historical Times Encyclopedia of the Civil War”,http://www.civilwarhome.com/parole.
(50)(93)(109)Springer,Paul J.,and Glenn Robins.Critical Moments in American History:Transforming Civil War Prisons Lincoln,Lieber,and the Politics of Captivity.New York and London:Routledge,2015,41,50,73.
(51)超过 29000 名南军士兵在维克斯堡地区投降,格兰特本想让这些被假释的南部士兵返乡,借机打击南部军民的士气。因急于补充前线兵员,南部违反议定书规定,于1863年9月提前把在维克斯堡获假释的邦联士兵投入西线战斗。
(52)Speer,Lonnie R.Portals to Hell:Military Prisons of the Civil War.Mechanicsburg:Stackpole,1997,114.
(54)McAdams,Benton.Rebels at Rock Island:The Story of a Civil War Prison.Dekalb:Northern Illinois University Press,2000,58.
(55)Marvel,William.Andersonville:The Last Depot.Chapel Hill:University of the North Carolina,1994,14.安德森维尔战俘营的正式名称为萨姆特战俘营。
(56)New York Times,15 November 1863.
(57)Richmond Examiner,30 October 1863.
(58)Springer,Paul J.,and Glenn Robins.Critical Moments in American History:Transforming Civil War Prisons Lincoln,Lieber,and the Politics of Captivity.New York and London:Routledge,2015,56.客观而言,《守则》的制定虽早于战俘交换协议,但因黑人当时尚未大规模参加战斗,故协议双方未考虑种族因素。由此看来,南部的说辞并非全无道理。
(59)(63)(64)(71)(74)(78)(79)(87)(88)The War of the Rebellion:A Compilation of the Official Records(ser.2,vol.7).Washington:Government Printing Office,1892,46-50,619,895,81,183-184,985,997,768,914.
(60)Butler,Benjamin F.Butler's Book.Boston:A.M.Thayer,1892,594.
(61)Hoffman,William.“Statement of Federal and Rebel Prisoners of War.” 16 April 1864,Box 2,Entry 149,RG 249.
(62)Thomas,Benjamin P.,and Harold M.Hyman.Stanton:The Life and Times of Lincoln's Secretary of War.New York:Alfred A.Knopf,1962,374.
(65)U.S.Congress.Report of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War(vol.3).Washington:Government Printing Office,1865,449-450,https://archive.org/details/reportofjointcomm01unit.
(66)Chicago Tribune,27 April 1864.
(67)(73)Lincoln,Abraham.Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln(vol.7).New Brunswick:Rutgers University Press,1953,303,345-346.
(68)Harper's Weekly,30 April 1864.
(69)John,Niven.Gideon Welles:Lincoln's Secretary of the Navy.New York:Oxford University Press,1973,402.海军士兵属于技术兵种,且不在斯坦顿的管辖权力内。一旦水兵阵亡与被俘,不像陆军那样能够迅速补充,故威尔斯一直支持战俘交换政策。
(70)Beale,Howard K.Diary of Edward Bates,1859-1866.Washington,D.C.:GPO,1933,365.
(72)Williams,Harry T.“Benjamin F.Wade and Atrocity Propaganda of the Civil War.” Ohio State Archeological and Historical Quarterly (1939):42.
(75)Gray,Michael P.The Business of Captivity:Elmira and Its Civil War Prison.Kent:The Kent State University Press,2001,27.
(76)Robertson,James I.“Scourge of Elmira.” Civil War History 8,no.2(1962):184-201.
(77)King,John R.My Experience in the Confederate Army and in Northern Prisons.Clarksburg:United Daughters of the Confederacy,1917,46.
(80)Braun,Herman A.Andersonville:An Object Lesson on Protection.Milwaukee:C.D.Fahsel,1892,161.
(81)Beers,Henry P.The Confederacy:A Guide to the Archives of the Government of the Confederate States of America.Washington,D.C.:National Archives and Record Administration,1986,250-258.
(82)从里士满转移到索里兹伯里的北方战俘分别在10月死亡267人,11月份死亡969人,12月死亡1164人。南部对北军战俘的大规模转移与谢尔曼的“向海洋进军”有关,随着大批土地的丢失,温德将军不断将北方拒绝交换的大量战俘向远离北军控制的地区转移。
(83)US Sanitary Commission.Narrative of Privations and Suffering of United States Official and Soldiers in the Hand of Rebel Authorities,Being the Report of a Commission of Inquiry Appointed by the United States Sanitary Commission,with an Appendix Containing the Testimony.Boston:Littell’s Living Age,1864,12-13.
(84)Richmond Examiner,8 October 1864.
(86)New York Times,10 November 1863,23 August and 8 September 1864.
(89)Rawley,James A.Turning Points of the Civil War.Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,1989,169.
(92)“失去的事业”是一场将南部邦联事业描绘为面对强敌而悲壮失败的事业。它赋予战前南部种种美德,将其美国内战建构成一场捍卫南部生活方式的荣耀搏斗,并竭力淡化奴隶制在触发内战中扮演的关键角色。
(94)Paludan,Phillip S.Presidency of Abraham Lincoln.Lawrence:University of Kansas Press,1994,106.
(96)The War of the Rebellion:A Compilation of the Official Records(ser.2,vol.8).Washington:Government Printing Office,1892,235.
(97)Bryant,William O.Cahaba Prison and Sultana Disaster.Tuscaloosa:University Alabama Press,129.
(98)Roberts,Nancy A.The Afterlife of Civil War Prisons and Their Dead.PhD.diss.,University of Oregon,1996,325.
(99)张慕智:《美国独立战争中的围绕美利坚战俘的宣传及其历史意义》,《世界历史》2017年第5期。
(100)Hutchinson,John F.Champions of Charity:War and the Rise of the Red Cross.Boulder:Westview Press,1996,123-126.
(101)Springer,Paul J.American Prisoner of War Policy and Practice from the Revolutionary War to the War on Terror.PhD.diss.,Texas A&M University,2006,103-136.
(102)Friedel,Frank B.Francis Lieber,Nineteenth Century Liberal.Baton Rouge:Louisiana State University Press,1947,329.联邦军队的《利伯守则》共有157条,全称是《美军战地管理条例》,起草人是哥伦比亚学院的政治经济学教授弗兰西斯·利伯。该守则规定了战俘的定义,保障了战俘的基本人权,捕获方不能随意处决战俘或成为其奴隶。虽然上述条款在美国内战中并未得到有效执行,但利伯守则对以后的国际战俘条约的制定提供了重要参考。
(103)Friedman,Leon.The Law of War:A Documentary History (vol.2).New York:Random House,1972,198-199.
(104)Musicant,Ivan.Empire by Default:The Spanish-American War and the Dawn of the American Century.New York:Henry Holt and Company,1998,475.
(105)McConnell,Stuart.Glorious Contentment:The Grand Army of the Republic,1865-1900.Chapel Hill:North Carolina University 1992,94-95.
(106)Coulter,Merton E.“Amnesty for all Except Jefferson Davis:The Hill-Blaine Debate of 1876.” Georgia Historical Quarterly 56 (1972):453-494.
(107)Southern Historical Society Papers,Vol.I.Richmond,Virginia,1876,No.3,http://www.civilwarhome.com/prisonertreatment.htm.
(110)https://www.google.ca/amp/s/amp.cnn.com/cnn/2017/08/12/us/charlottesville-white-nationalists-rally/index.html.