南京地区太阳能屋顶缓解夏季高温的模拟研究
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摘要
太阳能屋顶的安装预计能在一定程度上缓解城市化带来的能源危机及对城市热环境的破坏。利用耦合了城市单层冠层方案(UCM)的WRF模式,以南京2010年7月27日至8月5日夏季晴天微风天气为背景,模拟了不同发电效率的太阳能屋顶的安装对城市高温的缓解效应。结果表明:(1)太阳能屋顶可以通过削弱到达城市表面的太阳辐射使城市2 m高气温降低,随着发电效率的提高,降温效果更明显,且白天降温效果明显优于夜间;白天2 m高气温最大降低0.4—1.3℃,夜间降低0.2—0.5℃。(2)太阳能屋顶可使边界层内气温降低,白天在边界层400 m以下降温显著,夜间在边界层高度200 m以下降温显著;白天边界层内最大降温出现在中午前后,降温0.1—0.8℃,夜间边界层内最大降温0.5℃。(3)发电效率为40%时,模拟期间的发电量为18.1×109 kW·h。
The installation of rooftop solar photovoltaic is expected to relieve the energy crisis and urban thermal damage caused by urbanization to some extent. The non-hydrostatic version of the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF) model coupled with the single layer urban canopy model(UCM) is utilized to simulate the mitigating effect of rooftop solar photovoltaic with various power efficiencies under sunny and breezy weather condition from 27 July to 5 August 2010. The results indicate that:(1) the installation of rooftop solar photovoltaic can reduce the amount of energy needed to import into the city since it can generate energy for local use. This leads to cooling in the urban area since the energy generated by the solar panels can be used locally, which would otherwise heat the urban surface and radiate energy into the atmosphere. The cooling effect becomes more significant with increasing solar panel efficiency, and the daytime cooling effect is stronger than that in the nighttime. The maximum 2 m air temperature can be decreased by 0.4-1.3 and 0.2-0.5℃ in the daytime and nighttime, respectively;(2) the installation of rooftop solar photovoltaic can reduce the planetary boundary layer(PBL) temperature, and the cooling effect is significant below 400 and 200 m in the daytime and nighttime, respectively. The maximum decrease in the PBL temperature during the daytime occurs around noon, and the decreases can be up to 0.1-0.8 and 0.1-0.5℃ in the daytime and nighttime, respectively;(3) the power generation capacity is 18.1×10~9 kW·h within 9 d with the power generation efficiency of 40%.
The installation of rooftop solar photovoltaic is expected to relieve the energy crisis and urban thermal damage caused by urbanization to some extent. The non-hydrostatic version of the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF) model coupled with the single layer urban canopy model(UCM) is utilized to simulate the mitigating effect of rooftop solar photovoltaic with various power efficiencies under sunny and breezy weather condition from 27 July to 5 August 2010. The results indicate that:(1) the installation of rooftop solar photovoltaic can reduce the amount of energy needed to import into the city since it can generate energy for local use. This leads to cooling in the urban area since the energy generated by the solar panels can be used locally, which would otherwise heat the urban surface and radiate energy into the atmosphere. The cooling effect becomes more significant with increasing solar panel efficiency, and the daytime cooling effect is stronger than that in the nighttime. The maximum 2 m air temperature can be decreased by 0.4-1.3 and 0.2-0.5℃ in the daytime and nighttime, respectively;(2) the installation of rooftop solar photovoltaic can reduce the planetary boundary layer(PBL) temperature, and the cooling effect is significant below 400 and 200 m in the daytime and nighttime, respectively. The maximum decrease in the PBL temperature during the daytime occurs around noon, and the decreases can be up to 0.1-0.8 and 0.1-0.5℃ in the daytime and nighttime, respectively;(3) the power generation capacity is 18.1×10~9 kW·h within 9 d with the power generation efficiency of 40%.
引文
江晓燕,张朝林,高华等.2007.城市下垫面反照率变化对北京市热岛过程的影响:个例分析.气象学报,65(2):301-307.Jiang X Y,Zhang C L,Gao H,et al.2007.Impacts of urban albedo change on urban heat island in Beijing:A case study.Acta Meteor Sinica,65(2):301-307 (in Chinese)
李晓莉,毕宝贵,李泽椿.2005.北京冬季城市边界层结构形成机制的初步数值研究.气象学报,63(6):889-902.Li X L,Bi B G,Li Z C.2005.Simulation study of formation mechanism of winter urban boundary layer structure over Beijing area.Acta Meteor Sinica,63(6):889-902 (in Chinese)
蒙伟光,张艳霞,李江南等.2010.WRF/UCM在广州高温天气及城市热岛模拟研究中的应用.热带气象学报,26(3):273-282.Meng W G,Zhang Y X,Li J N,et al.2010.Application of WRF/UCM in the simulation of a heat wave event and urban heat island around Guangzhou city.J Trop Meteor,26(3):273-282 (in Chinese)
南京市统计局,国家统计局南京调查队.2011.南京统计年鉴.北京:中国统计出版社.Nanjing Bureau of Statistics,Nanjing Survey Team of the National Bureau of Statistics.2011.Statistical Yearbook of Nanjing.Beijing:China Statistics Press (in Chinese)
王腾蛟,张镭,张博凯等.2013.城市下垫面对河谷城市兰州冬季热岛效应及边界层结构的影响.气象学报,71(6):1115-1129.Wang T J,Zhang L,Zhang B K,et al.2013.The impacts of urban underlying surface on the winter urban heat island effect and the boundary layer structure over the valley city Lanzhou.Acta Meteor Sinica,71(6):1115-1129 (in Chinese)
周荣卫,蒋维楣,何晓凤.2008.城市冠层结构热力效应对城市热岛形成及强度影响的模拟研究.地球物理学报,51(3):715-726.Zhou R W,Jiang W M,He X F.2008.Numerical simulation of the impacts of the thermal effects of urban canopy structure on the formation and the intensity of the urban heat island.Chin J Geophys,51(3):715-726 (in Chinese)
周晓宇,王咏薇,孙绩华等.2019.冷却屋顶对北京城市热环境影响的模拟研究.气象学报,77(1):129-141.Zhou X Y,Wang Y W,Sun J H,et al.2019.A simulation study on the influence of cooling roof on the thermal environment in Beijing.Acta Meteor Sinice,77(1):129-141 (in Chinese)
Akbari H,Menon S,Rosenfeld A.2009.Global cooling:Increasing world-wide urban albedos to offset CO2.Climatic Change,94(3-4):275-286
Bermel P,Ghebrebrhan M,Chan W,et al.2010.Design and global optimization of high-efficiency thermophotovoltaic systems.Opt Express,18(S3):A314-A334
Chen L,Zhang M G,Wang Y W.2016.Model analysis of urbanization impacts on boundary layer meteorology under hot weather conditions:a case study of Nanjing,China.Theor Appl Climatol,125(3-4):713-728
Chukwuka C,Folly K A.2014.Overview of concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) cells.J Power Energy Eng,2(11):51343
Dudhia J.1989.Numerical study of convection observed during the winter monsoon experiment using a mesoscale two-dimensional model.J Atmos Sci,46(20):3077-3107
Green M A,Emery K,Hishikawa Y,et al.2016.Solar cell efficiency tables (version 47).Prog Photovol,24(1):3-11
Hong S Y,Dudhia J,Chen S H.2004.A revised approach to ice microphysical processes for the bulk parameterization of clouds and precipitation.Mon Wea Rev,132(1):103-120
Hu A X,Levis S,Meehl G A,et al.2016.Impact of solar panels on global climate.Nat Climate Change,6(3):290-294
Kurtz S.2012.Opportunities and challenges for development of a mature concentrating photovoltaic power industry (revision).Golden,Colorado:National Renewable Energy Laboratory,737-741
Kusaka H,Kondo H,Kikegawa Y,et al.2001.A simple single-layer urban canopy model for atmospheric models:Comparison with multi-layer and slab models.Bound Layer Meteor,101(3):329-358
Lewis N S.2007.Toward cost-effective solar energy use.Science,315(5813):798-801
Li D,Sun T,Liu M F,et al.2015a.Contrasting responses of urban and rural surface energy budgets to heat waves explain synergies between urban heat islands and heat waves.Environ Res Lett,10(5):054009
Li J,Georgescu M,Hyde P,et al.2015b.Regional-scale transport of air pollutants:impacts of southern California emissions on Phoenix ground-level ozone concentrations.Atmos Chem Phys Dis,15(6):8361-8401
Ma S,Goldstein M,Pitman A J,et al.2017.Pricing the urban cooling benefits of solar panel deployment in Sydney,Australia.Sci Rep,7(1):43938
Ma W J,Zeng W L,Zhou M G,et al.2015.The short-term effect of heat waves on mortality and its modifiers in China:An analysis from 66 communities.Environ Int,75:103-109
Masson V,Bonhomme M,Salagnac J L,et al.2014.Solar Panels reduce both global warming and urban heat island.Front Environ Sci,2:14
Mellor G L,Yamada T.1982.Development of a Turbulence closure model for geophysical fluid problems.Rev Geophys,20(4):851-875
Menon S,Akbari H,Mahanama S,et al.2010.Radiative forcing and temperature response to changes in urban albedos and associated CO2 offsets.Environ Res Lett,5(1):014005
Mlawer E J,Taubman S J,Brown P D,et al.1997.Radiative transfer for inhomogeneous atmospheres:RRTM,a validated correlated-k model for the longwave.J Geophys Res,102(D14):16663-16682
Niu G Y,Yang Z L,Mitchell K E,et al.2011.The community Noah land surface model with multiparameterization options (Noah-MP):1.Model description and evaluation with local-scale measurements.J Geophys Res,116(D12):D12109
Northam R M.1975.Urban Geography.New York:John Wiely & Sons,369-342
Oke T R.1982.The energetic basis of the urban heat island.Quart J Roy Meteor Soc,108(455):1-24
Oleson K W,Bonan G B,Feddema J.2010.Effects of white roofs on urban temperature in a global climate model.Geophys Res Lett,37(3):L03701
O'Malley C,Piroozfarb P A E,Farr E R P,et al.2014.An investigation into minimizing urban heat island (UHI) effects:A UK perspective.Energy Procedia,62:72-80
Paulson C A.1970.The Mathematical Representation of wind speed and temperature profiles in the unstable atmospheric surface layer.J Appl Meteor,9(6):857-861
Rephaeli E,Fan S H.2009.Absorber and emitter for solar thermo-photovoltaic systems to achieve efficiency exceeding the Shockley-Queisser limit.Opt Express,17(17):15145-15159
Riahi K,Kriegler E,Johnson N,et al.2015.Locked into Copenhagen pledges-implications of short-term emission targets for the cost and feasibility of long-term climate goals.Technol Forecasting Soc Change,90:8-23
Salamanca F,Tonse S,Menon S,et al.2012.Top-of-atmosphere radiative cooling with white roofs:Experimental verification and model-based evaluation.Environ Res Lett,7(4):044007
Salamanca F,Georgescu M,Mahalov A,et al.2016.Citywide impacts of cool roof and rooftop solar photovoltaic deployment on near-surface air temperature and cooling energy demand.Bound Layer Meteor,161(1):203-221
Scherba A,Sailor D J,Rosenstiel T N,et al.2011.Modeling impacts of roof reflectivity,integrated photovoltaic panels and green roof systems on sensible heat flux into the urban environment.Build Environ,46(12):2542-2551
Sharma A,Conry P,Fernando H J S,et al.2016.Green and cool roofs to mitigate urban heat island effects in the Chicago metropolitan area:Evaluation with a regional climate model.Environ Res Lett,11(6):064004
Susca T,Gaffin S R,Dell'Osso G R.2011.Positive effects of vegetation:urban heat island and green roofs.Environ Pollut,159(8-9):2119-2126
United Nations.2014.World urbanization prospects:The 2014 revision.http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/FinalReport/WUP2014-Report.pdf
Voyant C,Muselli M,Paoli C,et al.2009.Predictability of PV power grid performance on insular sites without weather stations:use of artificial neural networks//Proceedings of the 24th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference.Hamburg:4141-4144
Wei B R,Yagita H,Inaba A,et al.2003.Urbanization impact on energy demand and CO2 emission in China.J Chongqing Univ-Eng Ei,2(S1):46-50
Xu Z W,Etzel R A,Su H,et al.2012.Impact of ambient temperature on children's health:A systematic review.Environ Res,117:120-131
Yang Z L,Niu G Y,Mitchell K E,et al.2011.The community Noah land surface model with multiparameterization options (Noah-MP):2.Evaluation over global river basins.J Geophys Res,116(D12):D12110
Zhang C L,Chen F,Miao S G,et al.2009.Impacts of urban expansion and future green planting on summer precipitation in the Beijing metropolitan area.J Geophys Res,114(D2):D02116
李晓莉,毕宝贵,李泽椿.2005.北京冬季城市边界层结构形成机制的初步数值研究.气象学报,63(6):889-902.Li X L,Bi B G,Li Z C.2005.Simulation study of formation mechanism of winter urban boundary layer structure over Beijing area.Acta Meteor Sinica,63(6):889-902 (in Chinese)
蒙伟光,张艳霞,李江南等.2010.WRF/UCM在广州高温天气及城市热岛模拟研究中的应用.热带气象学报,26(3):273-282.Meng W G,Zhang Y X,Li J N,et al.2010.Application of WRF/UCM in the simulation of a heat wave event and urban heat island around Guangzhou city.J Trop Meteor,26(3):273-282 (in Chinese)
南京市统计局,国家统计局南京调查队.2011.南京统计年鉴.北京:中国统计出版社.Nanjing Bureau of Statistics,Nanjing Survey Team of the National Bureau of Statistics.2011.Statistical Yearbook of Nanjing.Beijing:China Statistics Press (in Chinese)
王腾蛟,张镭,张博凯等.2013.城市下垫面对河谷城市兰州冬季热岛效应及边界层结构的影响.气象学报,71(6):1115-1129.Wang T J,Zhang L,Zhang B K,et al.2013.The impacts of urban underlying surface on the winter urban heat island effect and the boundary layer structure over the valley city Lanzhou.Acta Meteor Sinica,71(6):1115-1129 (in Chinese)
周荣卫,蒋维楣,何晓凤.2008.城市冠层结构热力效应对城市热岛形成及强度影响的模拟研究.地球物理学报,51(3):715-726.Zhou R W,Jiang W M,He X F.2008.Numerical simulation of the impacts of the thermal effects of urban canopy structure on the formation and the intensity of the urban heat island.Chin J Geophys,51(3):715-726 (in Chinese)
周晓宇,王咏薇,孙绩华等.2019.冷却屋顶对北京城市热环境影响的模拟研究.气象学报,77(1):129-141.Zhou X Y,Wang Y W,Sun J H,et al.2019.A simulation study on the influence of cooling roof on the thermal environment in Beijing.Acta Meteor Sinice,77(1):129-141 (in Chinese)
Akbari H,Menon S,Rosenfeld A.2009.Global cooling:Increasing world-wide urban albedos to offset CO2.Climatic Change,94(3-4):275-286
Bermel P,Ghebrebrhan M,Chan W,et al.2010.Design and global optimization of high-efficiency thermophotovoltaic systems.Opt Express,18(S3):A314-A334
Chen L,Zhang M G,Wang Y W.2016.Model analysis of urbanization impacts on boundary layer meteorology under hot weather conditions:a case study of Nanjing,China.Theor Appl Climatol,125(3-4):713-728
Chukwuka C,Folly K A.2014.Overview of concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) cells.J Power Energy Eng,2(11):51343
Dudhia J.1989.Numerical study of convection observed during the winter monsoon experiment using a mesoscale two-dimensional model.J Atmos Sci,46(20):3077-3107
Green M A,Emery K,Hishikawa Y,et al.2016.Solar cell efficiency tables (version 47).Prog Photovol,24(1):3-11
Hong S Y,Dudhia J,Chen S H.2004.A revised approach to ice microphysical processes for the bulk parameterization of clouds and precipitation.Mon Wea Rev,132(1):103-120
Hu A X,Levis S,Meehl G A,et al.2016.Impact of solar panels on global climate.Nat Climate Change,6(3):290-294
Kurtz S.2012.Opportunities and challenges for development of a mature concentrating photovoltaic power industry (revision).Golden,Colorado:National Renewable Energy Laboratory,737-741
Kusaka H,Kondo H,Kikegawa Y,et al.2001.A simple single-layer urban canopy model for atmospheric models:Comparison with multi-layer and slab models.Bound Layer Meteor,101(3):329-358
Lewis N S.2007.Toward cost-effective solar energy use.Science,315(5813):798-801
Li D,Sun T,Liu M F,et al.2015a.Contrasting responses of urban and rural surface energy budgets to heat waves explain synergies between urban heat islands and heat waves.Environ Res Lett,10(5):054009
Li J,Georgescu M,Hyde P,et al.2015b.Regional-scale transport of air pollutants:impacts of southern California emissions on Phoenix ground-level ozone concentrations.Atmos Chem Phys Dis,15(6):8361-8401
Ma S,Goldstein M,Pitman A J,et al.2017.Pricing the urban cooling benefits of solar panel deployment in Sydney,Australia.Sci Rep,7(1):43938
Ma W J,Zeng W L,Zhou M G,et al.2015.The short-term effect of heat waves on mortality and its modifiers in China:An analysis from 66 communities.Environ Int,75:103-109
Masson V,Bonhomme M,Salagnac J L,et al.2014.Solar Panels reduce both global warming and urban heat island.Front Environ Sci,2:14
Mellor G L,Yamada T.1982.Development of a Turbulence closure model for geophysical fluid problems.Rev Geophys,20(4):851-875
Menon S,Akbari H,Mahanama S,et al.2010.Radiative forcing and temperature response to changes in urban albedos and associated CO2 offsets.Environ Res Lett,5(1):014005
Mlawer E J,Taubman S J,Brown P D,et al.1997.Radiative transfer for inhomogeneous atmospheres:RRTM,a validated correlated-k model for the longwave.J Geophys Res,102(D14):16663-16682
Niu G Y,Yang Z L,Mitchell K E,et al.2011.The community Noah land surface model with multiparameterization options (Noah-MP):1.Model description and evaluation with local-scale measurements.J Geophys Res,116(D12):D12109
Northam R M.1975.Urban Geography.New York:John Wiely & Sons,369-342
Oke T R.1982.The energetic basis of the urban heat island.Quart J Roy Meteor Soc,108(455):1-24
Oleson K W,Bonan G B,Feddema J.2010.Effects of white roofs on urban temperature in a global climate model.Geophys Res Lett,37(3):L03701
O'Malley C,Piroozfarb P A E,Farr E R P,et al.2014.An investigation into minimizing urban heat island (UHI) effects:A UK perspective.Energy Procedia,62:72-80
Paulson C A.1970.The Mathematical Representation of wind speed and temperature profiles in the unstable atmospheric surface layer.J Appl Meteor,9(6):857-861
Rephaeli E,Fan S H.2009.Absorber and emitter for solar thermo-photovoltaic systems to achieve efficiency exceeding the Shockley-Queisser limit.Opt Express,17(17):15145-15159
Riahi K,Kriegler E,Johnson N,et al.2015.Locked into Copenhagen pledges-implications of short-term emission targets for the cost and feasibility of long-term climate goals.Technol Forecasting Soc Change,90:8-23
Salamanca F,Tonse S,Menon S,et al.2012.Top-of-atmosphere radiative cooling with white roofs:Experimental verification and model-based evaluation.Environ Res Lett,7(4):044007
Salamanca F,Georgescu M,Mahalov A,et al.2016.Citywide impacts of cool roof and rooftop solar photovoltaic deployment on near-surface air temperature and cooling energy demand.Bound Layer Meteor,161(1):203-221
Scherba A,Sailor D J,Rosenstiel T N,et al.2011.Modeling impacts of roof reflectivity,integrated photovoltaic panels and green roof systems on sensible heat flux into the urban environment.Build Environ,46(12):2542-2551
Sharma A,Conry P,Fernando H J S,et al.2016.Green and cool roofs to mitigate urban heat island effects in the Chicago metropolitan area:Evaluation with a regional climate model.Environ Res Lett,11(6):064004
Susca T,Gaffin S R,Dell'Osso G R.2011.Positive effects of vegetation:urban heat island and green roofs.Environ Pollut,159(8-9):2119-2126
United Nations.2014.World urbanization prospects:The 2014 revision.http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/FinalReport/WUP2014-Report.pdf
Voyant C,Muselli M,Paoli C,et al.2009.Predictability of PV power grid performance on insular sites without weather stations:use of artificial neural networks//Proceedings of the 24th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference.Hamburg:4141-4144
Wei B R,Yagita H,Inaba A,et al.2003.Urbanization impact on energy demand and CO2 emission in China.J Chongqing Univ-Eng Ei,2(S1):46-50
Xu Z W,Etzel R A,Su H,et al.2012.Impact of ambient temperature on children's health:A systematic review.Environ Res,117:120-131
Yang Z L,Niu G Y,Mitchell K E,et al.2011.The community Noah land surface model with multiparameterization options (Noah-MP):2.Evaluation over global river basins.J Geophys Res,116(D12):D12110
Zhang C L,Chen F,Miao S G,et al.2009.Impacts of urban expansion and future green planting on summer precipitation in the Beijing metropolitan area.J Geophys Res,114(D2):D02116