旧石器遗址动物骨骼表面非人工痕迹研究及其考古学意义
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摘要
骨骼表面痕迹观察是旧石器时代动物考古学研究中的一个重要手段。通常情况下,在切割痕、砍砸痕、烧灼痕等古人类行为活动痕迹之外,考古遗址出土的动物骨骼表面都有多种非人工痕迹的保留。但是,相对于人工改造痕迹而言,国内考古学家对于后者的关注与研究却明显不足。本文以考古研究中最为常见的肉食类齿痕、啮齿类啮咬痕、水流磨蚀痕、踩踏痕、生物/化学腐蚀痕以及风化痕迹等为例,系统介绍它们的产生机理、主要鉴别特征、分布规律以及研究案例,并对其在旧石器时代动物考古学研究中的意义进行讨论与阐述。
The analysis of bone surface modifications is currently a major technique of taphonomic studies of the faunal remains from the Paleolithic sites.In addition to human-induced bone surface modifications,such as cut marks,percussion marks,and burning,there are generally non-human alterations observed on animal bones from the Paleolithic sites in China.However,although of particular significance,archaeologists have surprisingly seldom addressed the importance of the identifications of these naturally derived marks on bones.In this paper,certain categories of taphonomic imprints left on the faunal remains by nonhuman agents are outlined;underlying mechanisms,differential characteristics,distributional patterns and case studies for these bone modifications are also discussed;and archeological significance of these observations to the Chinese Paleolithic is also briefly mentioned by the author.Among the nonhuman surface modifications observed on animal bones from the archaeological sites,carnivore tooth marks such as pits,punctures,scores and furrows are well-known to archaeologists;and a taphonomic study of the faunal assemblage from the Lingjing site shows that 5.4%of the bone fragments bearing tooth marks,which strongly indicates a weak role played by carnivores in the accumulations and modification of these bones.Some species of rodents may accumulate and gnaw on animal bones to wear away their ever-growing incisors and consequently induce some kinds of characteristic signatures on these bones.A percentage of about 5%~6%of animal bones from the Longyadong site have gnawing marks,suggesting of a minor role played by rodents in the accumulations of this bone assemblage.Sedimentary particles carried on by flowing water may abrade bones and impart some randomly distributed striations on their surfaces.A certain proportion of bone fragments from the Xujiayao site at Nihewan basin bear this kind of modifications,which says to some extent a complicated depositional history for this faunal assemblage.Trampling by large or middle-sized animals of bone fragments lying on the ground or within sand can sometimes impart some fine and densely distributed striations.This special taphonomic process is well documented in faunal remains from the Lingjing site and indicates an amiable environ for these animals at this site,which is in good accordance with other lines of paleontological and taphonomic evidences.Acids excreted by plant roots or fungi could etch into bone surfaces and leave thin,shallow linear striations of various width and length.This kind of taphonomic signature is well preserved on some bones from the Ma'anshan site of Guizhou Province;although of a high percentage,these surface marks are generally confined to the outermost layer of the bone laminar and therefore have little negative effects on the sound interpretation of this faunal assemblage.Various stages of weathering of bones could be documented among faunal remains from the archaeological sites;in nature,there are resulted from a combination of physical and chemical processes and the effects are progressively cracking,splitting,exfoliation,disintegration,and finally decomposition.A comparative study of the weathering of the animal bones from the Lower Recess and the Lower Chamber of the Upper Cave lends support to different archaeological interpretations for these stratigraphic units.To sum up,although non-human surface modifications to animal bones are still poorly appreciated by scholars in China,their archaeological significance can't be underestimated by all means;to fully understand taphonomic histories of archaeological sites,we should instead make great efforts to documents these non-human surface modifications along with human marks on animal remains.
The analysis of bone surface modifications is currently a major technique of taphonomic studies of the faunal remains from the Paleolithic sites.In addition to human-induced bone surface modifications,such as cut marks,percussion marks,and burning,there are generally non-human alterations observed on animal bones from the Paleolithic sites in China.However,although of particular significance,archaeologists have surprisingly seldom addressed the importance of the identifications of these naturally derived marks on bones.In this paper,certain categories of taphonomic imprints left on the faunal remains by nonhuman agents are outlined;underlying mechanisms,differential characteristics,distributional patterns and case studies for these bone modifications are also discussed;and archeological significance of these observations to the Chinese Paleolithic is also briefly mentioned by the author.Among the nonhuman surface modifications observed on animal bones from the archaeological sites,carnivore tooth marks such as pits,punctures,scores and furrows are well-known to archaeologists;and a taphonomic study of the faunal assemblage from the Lingjing site shows that 5.4%of the bone fragments bearing tooth marks,which strongly indicates a weak role played by carnivores in the accumulations and modification of these bones.Some species of rodents may accumulate and gnaw on animal bones to wear away their ever-growing incisors and consequently induce some kinds of characteristic signatures on these bones.A percentage of about 5%~6%of animal bones from the Longyadong site have gnawing marks,suggesting of a minor role played by rodents in the accumulations of this bone assemblage.Sedimentary particles carried on by flowing water may abrade bones and impart some randomly distributed striations on their surfaces.A certain proportion of bone fragments from the Xujiayao site at Nihewan basin bear this kind of modifications,which says to some extent a complicated depositional history for this faunal assemblage.Trampling by large or middle-sized animals of bone fragments lying on the ground or within sand can sometimes impart some fine and densely distributed striations.This special taphonomic process is well documented in faunal remains from the Lingjing site and indicates an amiable environ for these animals at this site,which is in good accordance with other lines of paleontological and taphonomic evidences.Acids excreted by plant roots or fungi could etch into bone surfaces and leave thin,shallow linear striations of various width and length.This kind of taphonomic signature is well preserved on some bones from the Ma'anshan site of Guizhou Province;although of a high percentage,these surface marks are generally confined to the outermost layer of the bone laminar and therefore have little negative effects on the sound interpretation of this faunal assemblage.Various stages of weathering of bones could be documented among faunal remains from the archaeological sites;in nature,there are resulted from a combination of physical and chemical processes and the effects are progressively cracking,splitting,exfoliation,disintegration,and finally decomposition.A comparative study of the weathering of the animal bones from the Lower Recess and the Lower Chamber of the Upper Cave lends support to different archaeological interpretations for these stratigraphic units.To sum up,although non-human surface modifications to animal bones are still poorly appreciated by scholars in China,their archaeological significance can't be underestimated by all means;to fully understand taphonomic histories of archaeological sites,we should instead make great efforts to documents these non-human surface modifications along with human marks on animal remains.
引文
1 Domfnguez-Rodrigo M.Hunting and scavenging by early humans;The state of the debate.Journal of World Prehistory,2002,16(1);1-56
2 Marean C W,Spencer L M,Blumenschine R J et al.Captive hyaena bone choice and destruction,the schlepp effect and Olduvai archaeofaunas.Journal of Archaeological Science,1992,19(1):101-121
3 Blumenschine R J.Percussion marks,tooth marks,and experimental determinations of the timing of hominid and carnivore access to long bones at FLK Zinjanthropus,Olduvai Gorge,Tanzania.Journal of Human Evolution,1995,29(1):21~51
4 Blumenschine R J,Marean C W,Capaldo S D.Blind tests of interanalyst correspondence and accuracy in the identification of cut marks,percussion marks,and carnivore tooth marks on bone surfaces.Journal of Archaeological Science,1996,23(4);493~507
5 Selvaggio M M.Carnivore tooth marks and stone tool butchery marks on scavenged bones——Archaeological implications.Journal of Human Evolution,1994,27(1-3):215~228
6 Capaldo S D.Experimental determinations of carcass processing by Plio-Pleistocene hominids and carnivores at FLK 22(Zinjanthropus),Olduvai Gorge,Tanzania.Journal of Human Evolution,1997,33(5):555~597
7 Dominguez-Rodrigo M.Flesh availability and bone modifications in carcasses consumed by liona:Palaeoecological relevance in hominid foraging patterns.Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology,1999,149(1-4):373~388
8 Dominguez-Rodrigo M,Barha R,Egeland C P.Deconstructing Olduvai;A Taphonomic Study of the Bed I Sites.New York;Springer,2007.1-360
9 Norton C J,Gao X.Hominin-carnivore interactions during the Chinese Early Paleolithic:Taphonomic perspectives from Xujiayao.Journal of Human Evolution,2008,55(1):164~178
10张双权,李占扬,张乐等.河南灵井许昌人遗址动物骨骼表面人工改造痕迹.人类学学报,2011,30(3);313-326Zhang Shuangquan,Li Zhanyang,Zhang Yue et al.Cultural modifications on the animal bones from the Lingjing site,Henan Province.Acta Anthropologica Sinica,2011,30(3);313~326
11张乐,王春雪,张双权等.切割痕迹揭示马鞍山遗址晚更新世末人类肉食行为.科学通报,2009,54(19):2871-2878Zhang Yue,Wang Chunxue,Zhang Shuangquan et al.Cut marks and terminal Pleistocene hominids in the Ma'anshan site:Evidence for meat-eating.Chinese Science Bulletin,2009,54(21);3872~3879
12 Norton Christopher J,张双权,张乐等.上/更新世动物群中人类与食肉动物“印记”的识别.人类学学报,2007,26(2):183-192Norton Christopher J,Zhang Shuangquan,Zhang Yue et al.Distinguishing hominin and carnivore signatures in the PlioPleistocene faunal record.Acta Anthropologica Sinica,2007,26(2):183-192
13 Norton C J,Gao X.Zhoukoudian Upper Cave revisited.Current Anthropology,2008,49(4):732~745
14武仙竹,李禹阶,裴树文等.湖北郧西白龙洞遗址骨化石表面痕迹研究.第四纪研究,2008,28(6):1023-1033Wu Xianzhu,Li Yujie,Pei Shuwen et al.Surface marks on fossil bonesat in Bailong cave site,Yunxi,Hubei.Quaternary Sciences,2008,28(6):1023-1033
15 Pei W.Le Role des Animaux et des Causese Naturelles dans la Cassure des Os.Palaeontologia Sinica,New Series D,1938,7;1-16
16吕遵谔,黄蕴平.大型肉食哺乳动物啃咬骨骼和敲骨取髓破碎骨片的特征.见:北京大学考古系编.纪念北京大学考古专业三十周年论文集.北京:文物出版社,1990.4-39Lti Zun'e,Huang Yunping.The differential characteristics of the large carnivore and human fractured bones.In;Archaeology Department of Peking University ed.Proceedings of the 30th Anniversary of the Archaeology Department of Peking University.Beijing:Cultural Relics Press,1990.4-39
17 Shipman P,Rose J.Early hominid hunting,butchering,and carcassprocessing behaviors;Approaches to the fossil record.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology,1983,2(1);57-98
18 Shipman P.Applications of Scanning Electron Microscopy to taphonomic problems.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,1981,376(1)-357-385
19 Domfnguez-Rodrigo M.Testing,meat-eating in early hominids:An analysis of butchery marks on defleshed carcases.Human Evolution,1997,12(3):169-182
20 Lupo K D,O'Connell J F.Cut and tooth mark distributions on large animal bones:Ethnoarchaeological data from the Hadza and their implications for current ideas about early human carnivory.Journal of Archaeological Science,2002,29(1);85-109
21 Gifford D P.Taphonomy and paleoecoiogy:A critical review of archaeology's sister disciplines.In;Schiffer M B ed.Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory.New York and London;Academic Press,1981.365-438
22 Lyman R L.Vertebrate Taphonomy.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1994.1-552
23 Binford L R.Bones:Ancient Men and Modern Myth.New York:Academic Press,1981.1-320
24 Stiner M C.Honor Among Thieves;A Zooarchaeological Study of Neandertal Ecology.Princeton;Princeton University Press,1994.1-470
25 Norton C J.Taphonomic Perspectives on the Subsistence Patterns of Late Paleolithic Hunter-gatherers in Northeast Asia.New Jersey:The Ph.D Dissertation of Rutgers-the State University of New Jersey,2005.1-132
26 Blumenschine R J.An experimental model of the timing of hominid and carnivore influence on archaeological bone assemblages.Journal of Archaeological Science,1988,15(5):483-502
27 Binford L R,Bunn H T,Kroll E M.Fact and fiction about the Zinjanthropus floor:Data,arguments,and interpretations.Current Anthropology,1988,29(1):123-149
28张双权.河南许昌灵井动物群的埋藏学研究.北京:中国科学院古脊椎动物与古人类研究所博士学位论文,2009.1-216Zhang Shuangquan.Taphonomic Analysis of the Lingjing Fauna,Xuchang,Henan Province.Beijing;The Ph.D Dissertation of Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology,Chinese Academy of Sciences,2009.1-216
29 Munson P J,Marean C W.Adults only?A reconsideration of middle Paleolithic'prime-dominated'reindeer hunting at Salzgitter Lebenstedt.Journal of Human Evolution,2003,44(2):263-273
30 Bartram L E.An Ethnoarchaeological Analysis of Kua San(Botswana)Bone Food Refuse.Wisconsin;The Ph.D Dissertation of University of Wisconsin,1993.1-824
31 Lupo K D.Hadza bone assemblages and hyena attrition;An ethnographic example of the influence of cooking and mode of discard on the intensity of scavenger ravaging.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology,1995,14(3)-288-314
32 Bartram L E,Kroll E M,Bunn H T.Variability in camp structure and bone food refuse patterning at Kua San hunter-gatherer camps.In;Kroll E M,Price T D eds.The Interpretation of Archaeological Spatial Patterning.New York&London:Plenum Press,1991.77-148
33 Bunn H T,Ezzo J A.Hunting and scavenging by Plio-Pleistocene hominids;Nutritional constraints,archaeological patterns,and behavioural implications.Journal of Archaeological Science,1993,20(4):365~398
34 Dominguez-Rodrigo M,Piqueras A.The use of tooth pits to identify carnivore taxa in tooth-marked archaeofaunas and their relevance to reconstruct hominid carcass processing behaviours.Journal of Archaeological Science,2003,30(11):1385-1391
35 Pobiner B.Paleoecological information from predator tooth marks.Journal of Taphonomy,200%,6(3-4):373-397
36 Munson P J.Age-correlated differential destruction of bones and its effect on archaeological mortality profiles of domestic sheep and goats.Journal of Archaeological Science,2000,27(5);391-407
37 Lam Y M,Brunson K,Meadow R et al.Integrating taphonomy into the practice of zooarchaeology in China.Quaternary International,2010,211(1-2):86-90
38 Brain C K.The Hunters or the Hunted?An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1981.1-384
39 Isaac G L.The archaeology of human origins:Studies of the Lower Pleistocene in East Africa 1971-1981.In:Wendorf F,Close A eds.Advances in World Archaeology.New York:Academic Press,1984.1-87
40 Tong Haowen,Zhang Shuangquan,Chen Fuyou et al.Rongements selectifs des os par les pores-Spies et autres rongeurs:Cas de la grotte Tianyuan,un site avec des restes humains fossiles rScemment decouvert pres de Zhoukoudian(Choukoutien).L'anthropologie,2008,112(3):353-369
41张双权,张乐,栗静舒等.陕西洛南龙牙洞动物骨骼的埋藏学研究.人类学学报(待刊)Zhang Shuangquan,Zhang Yue,Li Jingshu et al.A taphonomic analysis of the faunal remains from the Longyadong site,Luonan County,Shaanxi Province.Acta Anthropologica Sinica(in preparation)
42 Norton C J,Hasegawa Y,Kohno N et al.Distinguishing archeological and paleontological faunal collections from Pleistocene Japan;Taphonomic perspectives from Hanaizumi.Anthropological Science,2007,115(2):91~106
43 Fiorillo A R.An experimental study of trampling:Implications for the fossil record.In;Bonnichsen R,Sorg M eds.Bone Modification.Orono:Center for the Study of the First Americans,1989.61-72
44 Fiorillo A R.An introduction to the identification of trample marks.Current Research in the Pleistocene,1984,1:47-48
45 Olsen S L,Shipman P.Surface modification on bone;Trampling versus butchery.Journal of Archaeological Science,1988,15(5):535-553
46 Andrews P,Cook J.Natural modifications to bones in a temperate setting.Man,1985,20(4):675~691
47 Behrensmeyer A K,Gordon K D,Yanagi G T.Nonhuman bone modification in Miocene fossils from Pakistan.In;Bonnichsen R,Sorg M eds.Bone Modification.Orono:Center for the Study of the First Americans,1989.99-120
48 Fisher J W.Bone surface modifications in zooarchaeology.Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory,1995,2(1):7~68
49 Johnson E.The taphonomy of mammoth localities in southeastern Wisconsin(USA).Quaternary International,2006,142~143:58-78
50 Domlnguez-Rodrigo M,Barba R.New estimates of tooth mark and percussion mark frequencies at the FLK Zinj site:The camivorehominid-carnivore hypothesis falsified.Journal of Human Evolution,2006,50(2):170-194
51 Zhang Y,Stiner M C,Dennell R et al.Zooarchaeological perspectives on the Chinese Early and Late Paleolithic from the Ma'anshan site(Guizhou,South China).Journal of Archaeological Science,2010,37(8):2066~2077
52 Behrensmeyer A K.Taphonomic and ecologic information from bone weathering.Paleobiology,1978,4(2):150~162
53 Tappen M.Bone weathering in the tropical rain forest.Journal of Archaeological Science,1994,21(5):667~673
54 Potts R.Early Hominid Activities at Olduvai Gorge.New York;Adline de Gruyter.1988.1-396
55 Shipman P.Life History of A Fossil:An Introduction.to Taphonomy and Paleoecology.Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1981.1-232
56张双权,Norton Christopher J,张乐.考古动物群中的偏移现象——埋藏学的视角.人类学学报,2007,26(4):379-388Zhang Shuangquan,Norton Christopher J,Zhang Yue.Biases in the archaeofaunal record:Taphonomic perspectives.Acta Anthropologica Sinica,2007,26(4):379~388
57 Pei W.The Upper Cave fauna of Choukoutien.Palaeontologia Sinica,New Series C,1940,10:l~84
2 Marean C W,Spencer L M,Blumenschine R J et al.Captive hyaena bone choice and destruction,the schlepp effect and Olduvai archaeofaunas.Journal of Archaeological Science,1992,19(1):101-121
3 Blumenschine R J.Percussion marks,tooth marks,and experimental determinations of the timing of hominid and carnivore access to long bones at FLK Zinjanthropus,Olduvai Gorge,Tanzania.Journal of Human Evolution,1995,29(1):21~51
4 Blumenschine R J,Marean C W,Capaldo S D.Blind tests of interanalyst correspondence and accuracy in the identification of cut marks,percussion marks,and carnivore tooth marks on bone surfaces.Journal of Archaeological Science,1996,23(4);493~507
5 Selvaggio M M.Carnivore tooth marks and stone tool butchery marks on scavenged bones——Archaeological implications.Journal of Human Evolution,1994,27(1-3):215~228
6 Capaldo S D.Experimental determinations of carcass processing by Plio-Pleistocene hominids and carnivores at FLK 22(Zinjanthropus),Olduvai Gorge,Tanzania.Journal of Human Evolution,1997,33(5):555~597
7 Dominguez-Rodrigo M.Flesh availability and bone modifications in carcasses consumed by liona:Palaeoecological relevance in hominid foraging patterns.Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology,1999,149(1-4):373~388
8 Dominguez-Rodrigo M,Barha R,Egeland C P.Deconstructing Olduvai;A Taphonomic Study of the Bed I Sites.New York;Springer,2007.1-360
9 Norton C J,Gao X.Hominin-carnivore interactions during the Chinese Early Paleolithic:Taphonomic perspectives from Xujiayao.Journal of Human Evolution,2008,55(1):164~178
10张双权,李占扬,张乐等.河南灵井许昌人遗址动物骨骼表面人工改造痕迹.人类学学报,2011,30(3);313-326Zhang Shuangquan,Li Zhanyang,Zhang Yue et al.Cultural modifications on the animal bones from the Lingjing site,Henan Province.Acta Anthropologica Sinica,2011,30(3);313~326
11张乐,王春雪,张双权等.切割痕迹揭示马鞍山遗址晚更新世末人类肉食行为.科学通报,2009,54(19):2871-2878Zhang Yue,Wang Chunxue,Zhang Shuangquan et al.Cut marks and terminal Pleistocene hominids in the Ma'anshan site:Evidence for meat-eating.Chinese Science Bulletin,2009,54(21);3872~3879
12 Norton Christopher J,张双权,张乐等.上/更新世动物群中人类与食肉动物“印记”的识别.人类学学报,2007,26(2):183-192Norton Christopher J,Zhang Shuangquan,Zhang Yue et al.Distinguishing hominin and carnivore signatures in the PlioPleistocene faunal record.Acta Anthropologica Sinica,2007,26(2):183-192
13 Norton C J,Gao X.Zhoukoudian Upper Cave revisited.Current Anthropology,2008,49(4):732~745
14武仙竹,李禹阶,裴树文等.湖北郧西白龙洞遗址骨化石表面痕迹研究.第四纪研究,2008,28(6):1023-1033Wu Xianzhu,Li Yujie,Pei Shuwen et al.Surface marks on fossil bonesat in Bailong cave site,Yunxi,Hubei.Quaternary Sciences,2008,28(6):1023-1033
15 Pei W.Le Role des Animaux et des Causese Naturelles dans la Cassure des Os.Palaeontologia Sinica,New Series D,1938,7;1-16
16吕遵谔,黄蕴平.大型肉食哺乳动物啃咬骨骼和敲骨取髓破碎骨片的特征.见:北京大学考古系编.纪念北京大学考古专业三十周年论文集.北京:文物出版社,1990.4-39Lti Zun'e,Huang Yunping.The differential characteristics of the large carnivore and human fractured bones.In;Archaeology Department of Peking University ed.Proceedings of the 30th Anniversary of the Archaeology Department of Peking University.Beijing:Cultural Relics Press,1990.4-39
17 Shipman P,Rose J.Early hominid hunting,butchering,and carcassprocessing behaviors;Approaches to the fossil record.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology,1983,2(1);57-98
18 Shipman P.Applications of Scanning Electron Microscopy to taphonomic problems.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,1981,376(1)-357-385
19 Domfnguez-Rodrigo M.Testing,meat-eating in early hominids:An analysis of butchery marks on defleshed carcases.Human Evolution,1997,12(3):169-182
20 Lupo K D,O'Connell J F.Cut and tooth mark distributions on large animal bones:Ethnoarchaeological data from the Hadza and their implications for current ideas about early human carnivory.Journal of Archaeological Science,2002,29(1);85-109
21 Gifford D P.Taphonomy and paleoecoiogy:A critical review of archaeology's sister disciplines.In;Schiffer M B ed.Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory.New York and London;Academic Press,1981.365-438
22 Lyman R L.Vertebrate Taphonomy.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1994.1-552
23 Binford L R.Bones:Ancient Men and Modern Myth.New York:Academic Press,1981.1-320
24 Stiner M C.Honor Among Thieves;A Zooarchaeological Study of Neandertal Ecology.Princeton;Princeton University Press,1994.1-470
25 Norton C J.Taphonomic Perspectives on the Subsistence Patterns of Late Paleolithic Hunter-gatherers in Northeast Asia.New Jersey:The Ph.D Dissertation of Rutgers-the State University of New Jersey,2005.1-132
26 Blumenschine R J.An experimental model of the timing of hominid and carnivore influence on archaeological bone assemblages.Journal of Archaeological Science,1988,15(5):483-502
27 Binford L R,Bunn H T,Kroll E M.Fact and fiction about the Zinjanthropus floor:Data,arguments,and interpretations.Current Anthropology,1988,29(1):123-149
28张双权.河南许昌灵井动物群的埋藏学研究.北京:中国科学院古脊椎动物与古人类研究所博士学位论文,2009.1-216Zhang Shuangquan.Taphonomic Analysis of the Lingjing Fauna,Xuchang,Henan Province.Beijing;The Ph.D Dissertation of Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology,Chinese Academy of Sciences,2009.1-216
29 Munson P J,Marean C W.Adults only?A reconsideration of middle Paleolithic'prime-dominated'reindeer hunting at Salzgitter Lebenstedt.Journal of Human Evolution,2003,44(2):263-273
30 Bartram L E.An Ethnoarchaeological Analysis of Kua San(Botswana)Bone Food Refuse.Wisconsin;The Ph.D Dissertation of University of Wisconsin,1993.1-824
31 Lupo K D.Hadza bone assemblages and hyena attrition;An ethnographic example of the influence of cooking and mode of discard on the intensity of scavenger ravaging.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology,1995,14(3)-288-314
32 Bartram L E,Kroll E M,Bunn H T.Variability in camp structure and bone food refuse patterning at Kua San hunter-gatherer camps.In;Kroll E M,Price T D eds.The Interpretation of Archaeological Spatial Patterning.New York&London:Plenum Press,1991.77-148
33 Bunn H T,Ezzo J A.Hunting and scavenging by Plio-Pleistocene hominids;Nutritional constraints,archaeological patterns,and behavioural implications.Journal of Archaeological Science,1993,20(4):365~398
34 Dominguez-Rodrigo M,Piqueras A.The use of tooth pits to identify carnivore taxa in tooth-marked archaeofaunas and their relevance to reconstruct hominid carcass processing behaviours.Journal of Archaeological Science,2003,30(11):1385-1391
35 Pobiner B.Paleoecological information from predator tooth marks.Journal of Taphonomy,200%,6(3-4):373-397
36 Munson P J.Age-correlated differential destruction of bones and its effect on archaeological mortality profiles of domestic sheep and goats.Journal of Archaeological Science,2000,27(5);391-407
37 Lam Y M,Brunson K,Meadow R et al.Integrating taphonomy into the practice of zooarchaeology in China.Quaternary International,2010,211(1-2):86-90
38 Brain C K.The Hunters or the Hunted?An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1981.1-384
39 Isaac G L.The archaeology of human origins:Studies of the Lower Pleistocene in East Africa 1971-1981.In:Wendorf F,Close A eds.Advances in World Archaeology.New York:Academic Press,1984.1-87
40 Tong Haowen,Zhang Shuangquan,Chen Fuyou et al.Rongements selectifs des os par les pores-Spies et autres rongeurs:Cas de la grotte Tianyuan,un site avec des restes humains fossiles rScemment decouvert pres de Zhoukoudian(Choukoutien).L'anthropologie,2008,112(3):353-369
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